英语语言学教程2---音标-发音.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Chapter 2,Speech Sounds,As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds,but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.,We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are,phonetics,and,phonology,.,Phonetics,studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.,Phonology,is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.,It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages,and to explain the variations that occur.,In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language,say English,in order to determine its,phonological structure,i.e.which sound units are used and how they are put together.,Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to,make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.,1.How speech sounds are made,1.1 Speech organs,The mouth:the tongue,the plate(腭),The throat:pharynx(upper)(咽),larynx(lower)(喉头),The vocal tract(声道):the pharynx,mouth,and nose,The mouth:the oral cavity(口腔),The nose:the nasal cavity(鼻腔),Speech organs,The vocal folds are either(a)apart,(b)close together,or(c)totally closed.,Voiceless,(清音):the vocal folds are apart,the air can pass easily p,s,t,Voiced,(浊音):the vocal folds are close together,the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other b,z,d,Glottal stop,(喉塞音):the vocal folds are totally closed,no air can pass between them,Position of the vocal folds:voiceless,Position of the vocal folds:voicing(initial&the widest aperture),Position of the vocal folds:glottal stop,发音器官的构造及其作用,世界上所有的声音都是物体振动产生的声波在介质中传递的结果，因此声音的产生离不开振动的动力、振动的源头和振动的共鸣腔。语音说到底也是一种声音，因而也离不开振动的动力、源头和共鸣腔，只不过语音是由人类的发音器官各部分协同动作所产生的，研究语音的产生，就必须首先了解发音器官的构造和功能。人类的发音器官可以分为三大部分：呼吸器官、喉头声带与声腔（口腔、鼻腔与咽腔），我们详细介绍各部分的构造和功能。,发音器官的构造及其作用,2 喉头和声带,喉头由软骨构成，呈圆筒状，上接咽腔，下接气管，喉头的外表就是喉结。喉头软骨构成的圆筒中有一对声带，声带是两片富有弹性的唇性肌肉，其前后两端都粘附在软骨上。两片声带之间的空隙叫声门，声门又可以分为音门和气门两部分。由于肌肉的松弛紧缩和软骨的开合回转，声带可以放松或拉紧，声门可以打开和关闭，从而产生不同的气流状态。声带的两小片肌肉可以在气流的冲击下振动，这种振动产生了语音中的浊音。所以声带的主要作用是振动的源头之一-浊音的音源。,发音器官的构造及其作用,3 声腔,声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。,口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齿、齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的部分，软腭是硬腭后面的柔软部分。软腭后面连接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以上下移动。口腔的下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。舌头是口腔里最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为舌尖、舌叶、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌头的最前端，舌头自然平伸时，舌尖后面与齿龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌叶之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分为前、中、后三部分。其中相对于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相对于软腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌跟。,The IPA,The International Phonetic Association(IPA)(标音法)1897,The International Phonetic Alphabet(the IPA chart)1888,first,version,The latest version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005.,CONSONANTS and VOWELS,The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet(Revised to 2005),2.Consonants and Vowels元音和辅音,The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.,Consonants,are produced by a closure in the vocal tract,or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.,A,vowel,is produced without obstruction of the air so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.,The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the,obstruction of airstream,.,As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.,2.1 Consonants,In the production of consonants at least two,articulators,are involved.,For example,the initial sound in,bad,involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade(or the tip)of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.,The categories of consonant,therefore,are established on the basis of several factors.,The,manner of articulation,refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:,the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;,they may narrow the space considerably;or,they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.,Stop(or Plosive),Oral&Nasal,Fricative,(Median)Approximant,Lateral(Approximant),Trill,Tap or Flap,Affricate,1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音):,complete closure of the articulators involved,p,b,t,d,k,g,2)Fricative(擦音):,close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed,f,v,s,z,h,3)(Median)Approximant(中)通音:,an articulation in which one articulator is close to another,but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced,w,r,j,5)Lateral(边音):the obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the center of the oral tract,with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongu and the roof of the mouth,l,6)Trill/roll(颤音/卷舌音)：an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream,r,7)Tap and flap(闪音),8）Affricate(塞擦音):involve more than one of these manners of articultation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.,The,place of articulation,refers to the point where a consonant is made.,Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.,Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:,Bilabial,Labiodental,Dental,Alveolar,Postalveolar,Retroflex,Palatal,Velar,Uvular,Pharyngeal,Glottal,1),Bilabia,l,(双唇音):made with the two lips,2),Labiodental,(唇齿音):made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth,3),Dental,(齿音):made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth,4),Alveolar,(齿龈音):made with the tongue tip or,blade and the,alveolar ridge,5),Postalveolar,(后齿龈音):,made with the tongue tip or the back of the alveolar ridge,6),Retroflex,(卷舌音):made with the tongue tip or blade curled back,7),Palatal,(腭音):made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate,8),Velar,(软腭音):made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate,9),Uvular,(小舌音):made with the back of the tongue and the uvula,10),Pharyngeal,(咽音):made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx,11),Glottal,(声门音):made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other,2.2 Vowels,Cardinal vowels(基本元音):,First suggested by A.J.Ellis in 1844,a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined;,provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.,represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space,Thus,the cardinal vowel diagram in the IPA is a set of hypothetical positions for vowels,used as reference points,based on a combination of articulatory and auditory judgments,the front,center,and back of the tongue are distinguished,as are four levels of tongue height(the highest position,the lowest position and two intermediate levels).,The system defines eight“primary”cardinal vowels:,iea,(unrounded),ou,(rounded),Jones:An Outline of English Phonetics(1918),Black:IPA,Red:English,Vowel glides(元音音渡）,Pure/Monophthong vowels,(纯元音或单元音):Vowels whose quality remains constant throughout the articulation,Vowel glides,:Vowels where there is an audible change of quality,Diphthong,(双元音):a single movement(way,tide,how,toy,toe)of tongue is involved,Triphthong,(三重元音):a double movement(wire,tower)of tongue,2.3 The sounds of English,The most common accent in the teaching of English:,RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION(RP,),(BBC English,Oxford English).,It originates historically in the southeast of England and is spoken by the upper-middles and upper classes throughout England.,In the USA,the widely accepted accent used is,GENERAL AMERICAN(GA),English consonants,Describe consonants,Place of articulation,Manner of articulation,Voicing,Eg.p voiceless bilabial stop,b voiced bilabial stop,s voiceless alveolar fricative,z voiced alveolar fricative,English vowels,Four basic requirements for the description of vowels,1)the,height,of tongue raising(high,mid,low),2)the,position,of the highest part of the tongue(front,central,back),3)the,length,or tenseness of the vowel(tense vs.lax or long vs.short),4),lip-rounding,(rounded vs.unrounded),We can now describe the English vowels in this way:,high front tense unrounded vowel,high back lax rounded vowel,mid central lax unrounded vowel,low back lax rounded vowel,3.,From phonetics to phonology,Speech is a continuous process,so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps.Rather,sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.,For example,map,lamb,.,Coarticulation and phonetic transcription,Phonemes,Allophones,3.1 Coarticulation(协同发音）,Speech is a continuous process.Sounds may be influenced by their neighbors.(map,lamb),When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved,we call the process,coarticulation,.,If the sound becomes more like the following sound(lamb),it is known as,anticipatory coarticulation,(逆化协同发音).,If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound(map),it is,perseverative coarticulation,(重复性协同发音).,The former are more common than the latter.,The fact that the vowel,in,lamb,has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call,nasalization,.,To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol,as,.,p is,aspirated,in,peak,and,unaspirated,in,speak,.,This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the,diacritic,h,as p,h,whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p.,When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription,it is called a,broad transcription,.,The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a,narrow transcription,.,Both are,phonetic transcriptions,so we put both forms in square brackets .,3.2 Phonemes,Phonology,is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.,Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.,Phonetics&phonology,Both are concerned with the same aspect of language-the speech sounds.But they differ in their approach and focus.,Phonetics is of general nature;it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;it aims to answer questions like:how they are produced,how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they have,how they can be classified,etc.,Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.,Phone,A phone-a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning,some do,some don,t,e.g.,Crystal:Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase,whereas other sounds do not.,Minimal pairs test,Phonemes,Minimal pairs,(最小对立体,):,Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word.,e.g.t and d:,tin/din,tie/die,i:and i:,beat/bit,bead/bid,These important units are called,phonemes,Phoneme,A phoneme-is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value;an abstract unit,not a particular sound,but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context,e.g.the phoneme/p/can be represented differently,MINIMAL PAIR,：,Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound(one phoneme)and which also differ in meaning.,For example,the English words,bear,and,pear,are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phoneme/b/and/p/,Minimal pair-when two different forms are identical(the same)in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair,e.g.,beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.,The phoneme theory,Phoneme,:units of explicit sound contrast,built on the idea of contrast,Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.,In English,the distinction between aspirated p,h,and unaspirated p is not,phonemic,.,In Chinese,however,the distinction between/p/and/p,h,/is phonemic.,By convention,phonemic transcriptions,are placed between,slant,lines(/),while,phonetic transcriptions,are placed between square brackets().,In phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions represent the“broad”transcription,3.3 Allophones,p,p,h,are two different,phones,and are variants of the,phoneme,/p/.,Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.,In this case the allophones are said to be in,complementary distribution,because they never occur in the same context:,p occurs after s while p,h,occurs in other places.,/p/,p/s _,p,h,elsewhere,This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called,allophony,or,allophonic variation,.,Velarization,:,clear,l,and,dark,l,/,/,/_ V,/V _,Think about,tell,and,telling,!,Phonetic similarity,:the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.,Free variants,and,free variation:,Apart from complementary distribution,a phoneme may sometimes have free variants.,For example,the final consonant of,cup,may not be released by some speakers so,there is no audible sound at the end of this word.In this case,it is the same word pronounced in two different ways.,The difference may be caused by dialect,habit,or individual preferenc,e,instead of any distribution rule.,Free variation is also seen in regional differences.,Either,direction,Some rules of phonology,Sequential rules,Assimilation rule,Deletion rule,Sequential rules,Sequential rules-the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language,e.g.in English,“,k b i I,”,might possibly form blik,klib,bilk,kilb.,If a word begins with a l or a r,then the next sound must be a vowel.,If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination should obey the following three rules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.,a),the first phoneme must be/s/,b),the second phoneme must be/p/or/t/or/k/,c),the third phoneme must be/l/or/r/or/w/.,Deletion rule,Deletion rule-it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented,e.g.,design,paradigm,there is no g sound;but the g sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms,signature,designation,paradigmatic,.,4.Phonological processes,phonological rules and distinctive features,4.1 Assimilation,Nasalization,dentalization,and,velarization,are all instances of,assimilation,a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.,If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound,we call it,regressive assimilation,.,The converse process,in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound,is known as,progressive assimilation,.,English Fricative Devoicing,/v/,f /z/s etc.,voiced fricative voiceless/_ voiceless,Nasalization rule:,-nasal +nasal/_+nasal,Dentalization rule:,-dental,dental/_ dental,Velarization rule:,-velar,+velar/_+velar,4.2 Epenthesis,rule ordering and