Unit-3-Presupposition-英语语用学.ppt

ContactmeYanlingTangForeignStudiesCollegeHunanNormalUniversity36LushanRoad,ChangshaCity,Hunan410081ThePeoplesRepublicofChina(CHINA)Cellphone:13347319966E-mail:1AnIntroductiontoPragmaticsACourseforB.A.StudentsInstructor:Prof.TangYanling唐燕玲唐燕玲2IntheUSA,anaccusedmugger,ratherfoolishlychosetodefendhimselfatthetrial.Thefollowingisoneofthequestionsheputtohisvictim:DidyougetagoodlookatmyfacewhenItookyourpurse?Hewassentencedto10yearsinprison.33PresuppositionOriginanddefinitionofpresuppositionTypesofpresuppositionCharacteristicsofpresuppositionApplicationofpresupposition4IntroductionPresuppositionisatermusedinphilosophyoflanguage.Ontheonehand,itisstudiedinthescopeoflogicandsemanticswhichisbasedmorecloselyontheactuallinguisticstructureofsentences.Ontheotherhand,presuppositioncannotbethoughtofaslogicalorsemanticonly,becauseitisverysensitivetocontextualfactors.5语义学语言学语用学德国哲学家、数学家弗雷格(Gottlob Frege)的著作论意义与指称(On Sense and Reference，1892)逻辑学20世纪六七十年代，斯特劳森(Peter Strawson)从真值条件出发，将预设看作是句子或命题之间的关系哲学语义预设具有可取消性(defeasibility)和语境依赖性等特点，语言学家感觉到不能从狭义的真实条件语义上去考虑预设，而应该视其为一种语用推理不能6Presupposition前提、前设、先设、预设它也是一种推理，是从另外一个角度进行的推理；在语言结构的基础上，依靠逻辑概念、语义、语境等推断出话语意义的先决条件(prerequisite)。7预设的分类Semantic Presupposition语义预设语义预设PragmaticPresupposition语用预设语用预设8Logic-semanticpresuppositionA.Presuppositionrelationship1)Causesarepresuppositionofeffects,oreffectspresupposecauses.(1)JohnwroteHarryaletter.Harrycouldread.(2)JohnaskedBilltoclosethedoor.Thedoorhadbeenopened.92)Therelationshipbetweenutteranceandpresuppositionistherelationshipoflogic.(3)*XiziLakeiswise.(4)Canyoutellmewherethelavatoryis?-Theresnolavatoryon the second floor.103)Presuppositionandassertion(5)Todayhewaslateagain.Hehadbeenlatebefore=Hewaslatetoday.(6)Todayhewasntlateagain.Hehadbeenlatebefore*Hewaslatetoday=Hewasntlatetoday.(7)Was/Wasnthelateagaintoday?Hehadbeenlatebefore=eitherHewaslatetoday orhewasntlatetoday.11B.Presuppositiontriggers（前提触发语）Logic-semanticpresuppositionisformedontheactuallinguisticstructure.Somewordsorexpressionsinspeechremindustorealizepresuppositions.Wecallthempresuppositiontriggers.1.Definitedescriptions（有定描述）(1)Johnsaw/didntseethe man with two heads.Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads.122.Factiveverbs（叙实动词）:regret,aware,realize,know;be sorry that,be proud that,be indifferent that,be glad that,be sad that,be odd,etc.(2)Martharegrets/doesnt regret drinkingJohnshome-madewine.MarthadrankJohnshome-madewine.(3)Johnrealized/didnt realize thathewasindebt.Johnwasindebt.133.Implicativeverbs（含蓄动词）:manage,forget,happen,avoid,etc.(4)Johnmanaged/didnt manage toopenthedoor.Johntriedtoopenthedoor.(5)Johnforget/didnt forget tolockthedoor.Johnoughttohavelocked,orintendedtolockthedoor.144.Transitionalverbs（变动动词）:stop,begin,continue,start,finish,carry on,cease,leave,enter,come,go,arrive,etc.(6)Johnstopped/didnt stop beatinghischild.Johnhadbeenbeatinghischild.155.Iteratives（反复动词、副词）:again,anymore,return,another time,come back,restore,repeat,etc.(7)Hecame/didntcomeagain.Hecamebefore.6.Verbsofjudging（评价动词）:criticize,accuse,etc.(8)Iancriticized/didnt criticize Agathaforrunningaway.(Ianthinks)Agatharanaway.167.Temporalclauses（时间分句）:before,while,since,after,during,whenever,as,etc.(9)Before Strawsonwasevenborn,Fregenoticed/didntnoticepresuppositions.Strawsonwasborn.8.Cleftsentences（分裂句）:(10)It was/wasntHenrythat atetherice.Someoneatetherice.179.Comparisons（比较结构）:(11)Carolis/isntabetter linguist than Barbara.Barbaraisalinguist.10.Non-restrictiverelativeclauses（非限制性关系分句）:(12)Myneighbour,who is very pessimistic,saystherewillbenoapplesthisyear.Myneighbourisverypessimistic.1811.Questions（问句）:(13)Is there aprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT?EitherthereisaprofessoroflinguisticsatMITorthereisnt.(14)Who istheprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT?SomeoneistheprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT.1920Pragmaticpresupposition1)Sensitivetocontextualfactors:Ithastodowithbelief,attitude,intentionofthespeakerandeventhehearer.A.Herhusbandiskindtoher.(Thespeakerbelieved)shehasahusband.B.Heiskindtoher,butheisntherhusband.212)Havingtodowiththespeakersorthesubjectsattitudeandintention.JohncalledMaryaRepublican,andthensheinsultedhimback.JohnhasinsultedMary.(BeingRepublicancanberegardedbyJohnasaninsult.)3)WiththespeakersfocusBobbeatMarySomeonebeatMary.BobbeatMaryBobbeatsomeone.22美国著名幽默作家美国著名幽默作家马马克吐温与共和党人交克吐温与共和党人交恶恶，曾在，曾在纽约纽约时报时报上撰文上撰文说说：有些共和党人是：有些共和党人是婊婊子养的。他的言子养的。他的言论论在在议议会引起会引起轩轩然大波，共和党人然大波，共和党人纷纷纷纷抗抗议议，要求，要求马马克吐温公克吐温公开道歉。开道歉。马马克吐温便在克吐温便在纽约时报纽约时报上公开上公开发发表声明：我表声明：我道歉，我收回我的道歉，我收回我的话话，应应改改为为“有些共和党人不是婊子养有些共和党人不是婊子养的！的！”。马马克吐温除了运用克吐温除了运用“逻辑学逻辑学”中的中的“判断判断”技巧外，还运用了技巧外，还运用了“言语行为的预设言语行为的预设”，他的，他的“有些共和党人不是婊子养的有些共和党人不是婊子养的”否定句中早有预设：有些共和党人就是否定句中早有预设：有些共和党人就是婊子养的。婊子养的。234)Dependingonwhetherthespeakersutteranceissuitabletothecontext.Mary,cleantheroom.Theroomisdirty;Maryknowswhichroomisreferredto;Maryisabletodothejob,etc.5)Knownbyboththespeakerandhearer,orithasthecommongroundbetweenthespeakerandhearer.A.Ivejustrunoutofpetrol.B.Theresagaragejustaroundthecorner.(Youcanbuypetrolfromthegaragenearby.)24Defeasibilityofpragmaticpresupposition语用前提的可取消性1)Presuppositioncanbedefeasiblebyaddingsomecontenttothepreviousproposition(1)Johndidntmanagetopasstheexams.Johntriedtopasshisexams.25(1)a.Johndidntmanagetopasshisexams,infacthedidnteventry.b.Johndidntmanagetopasshisexams,ifindeedheeventried.c.EitherJohnnevertriedtopasshisexams,orhetriedbuthenevermanagedtopassthem.d.Johndidntmanagetopasshisexams;hegotthroughwithouteventrying.262)Presuppositioncanbecanceledbychangingthewordsorexpressionstoaltertheproposition(2)Shecriedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.Shefinishedherthesis.(3)Shediedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.*ShefinishedherthesisShedidntfinishherthesis.27在一定语境下，语用预设可以撤销，这种可撤销性“依赖于说话者的态度和信念。”(何自然，1997：72)也就是说，说话者可以通过做出另外的声明或改变语境撤销原先的预设。例如：A:您儿子好可爱啊！B:我还没结婚呢！从以上对话的预设触发语“儿子”中我们得知A预设了“B有儿子”，然后这一预设随着交际的进行而被B撤销了，B的话语中蕴含着“这不是我儿子，我还没结婚”这样一个意思。2829EntailmentandpresuppositionThe differences between themPresupposition-is something the speaker assumes to be case prior to making an utterance -Speaker,not sentence,have presupposition.-Speaker assumes it is known by listeners.Entailment-is sth that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance.-Sentences,not speakers,have entailments.30How to distinguish them?a entails b on two conditions:If a is true,b is true.If a is false,b is true,or b is false.a presupposes b on two conditions:If a is true,b is true.If a is false,b is still true.31“你上班经常迟到吗？你上班经常迟到吗？”蕴含蕴含:“你上班迟到。你上班迟到。”预设预设:“你已经工作（或你在上班）。你已经工作（或你在上班）。”知识拓展知识拓展32蕴含与预设都是话语意义的组成部分，但蕴含是在蕴含与预设都是话语意义的组成部分，但蕴含是在话语中所包含的逻辑语义信息，可以从句子意义本身话语中所包含的逻辑语义信息，可以从句子意义本身推导出来，因此，话语的蕴含意义是相对固定的，可以推导出来，因此，话语的蕴含意义是相对固定的，可以推知的；推知的；而预设是话语在使用前，交际双方预先设定的共知信息，而预设是话语在使用前，交际双方预先设定的共知信息，第三者即使身处交际的客观语境中，也难以明白说话双第三者即使身处交际的客观语境中，也难以明白说话双方的真正意义；预设是临时性的，可以变化的，交际时方的真正意义；预设是临时性的，可以变化的，交际时语境因素的任何变化都会导致预设的改变。语境因素的任何变化都会导致预设的改变。蕴涵与预设的区别蕴涵与预设的区别知识拓展知识拓展33SummaryOrigin:Fregein1892Definition:Presuppositionmeanswhataspeakerorwriterassumesthereceiverofthemessagealreadyknows.34Types:semantic&pragmaticpresuppositionsCharacteristics:PresuppositionrelationshipPresuppositiontriggersWithcontextsDefeasibility35ASSIGNMENT4.The Co-operative Principle and 4.The Co-operative Principle and ImplicatureImplicature36