生态系统景观翻译.doc

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
The landscape as an ecosystem
作为生态系统的景观
H. Doing
Department of Vegetation Ecology, Plant Ecology and Weed Science，Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
植被生态学，植物生态学与杂草科学学院,荷兰瓦赫宁根农业大学。
Abstract摘要
Landscape, in this paper, is defined as "a complex of geographically, functionally and historically interrelated ecosystems" (also: "organised land").
风景，在本文中，被定义为“历史性与功能性相互关联的生态系统地理的结合” （也定义为：“有组织的土地”）。
For its planning and management, mapping of geomorphological, hydrological, and climatic conditions is crucial to understand the ecological patterns.
规划管理，地貌，水文，气候条件对于了解它的生态格局是非常重要的。
To warrant the landscape's sustainability, its ecosystems' multiple and interdependent functions should be carefully identified on macro-, meso- and micro-level.
为了保证景观的可持续发展，其生态系统的多元化和相互依存的作用在宏观，中观和微观几个层面应仔细确定。
It is argued that, whereas a natural ecosystem is homogenous, the landscape ecosystem is heterogeneous, for example in a mosaic or zoned way.
有人认为，鉴于自然生态系统是同质性的，所以景观生态系统是异质性的，以马赛克或片带状的方式为例。
Like evolution in organisms, succession in ecosystems tends do develop toward increasing independency from environmental fluctuations (increasing autonomy of the systems).
如同生物进化，生态系统演替趋势逐步从环境波动向独立性发展（增加了系统的自主性）。
On the contrary, landscape ecosystems have increasingly lost their regional autonomy over the last decades, as external input technologies became favoured.
相反，景观生态系统日益失去了过去几十年的区域自治，作为外部输入技术受到青睐。
However, theories and practices of ecological (organic) agriculture, low external input oriented as they are, tend to re-enforce the local ecosystems' autonomy together with the regional identity.
然而，理论和生态（有机）农业，因为它们来自外部的投入低，往往会重新赋予与区域特性一致的“当地生态系统自主能力。
In the Netherlands intensive and widespread land reclamation (polders and floodplains) made hydro-ecology a major landscape-ecology determinant.
荷兰密集和广泛的填海（低地和洪泛区）使得水文生态成为景观生态的主要因素。
Distribution patterns of floristic species are found to reflect the hydro-dynamic conditions in natural and semi-natural ecosystems.
植物区系物种的分布格局被发现，以反映自然和半自然生态系统的水动力条件。
Provided that suitable knowledge on local conditions is available, they can be used as indicators of potential sites for nature regeneration and indicate landscape degradation as well.
只要适合当地条件的知识是可用的，它们可以被用来作为对自然再生的地点的指标，并说明景观退化。
Even though potentially favouring agro-ecosystems diversity and regional autonomy, ecological types of agriculture, as currently defined by law, do only promote nature on the farm when the farmer dedicates special attention it as an additional objective of his (organic) farming.
尽管可能有利于农业生态系统的多样性和区域自治，农业生态类型，按照目前的法律规定，做到既促进农场的性质时，农民献给特别注意它作为他的（有机）农业的其他目标。
Keywords: Regional, autonomy；Agro-landscape; Landscape-ecosystem; Ecological agriculture; Species' distribution patterns
关键词：区域自治;农业景观;景观生态系统，生态农业，物种的分布格局

1. Introduction
At the first meeting concerning this Concerted Action in Wageningen(in 1993), I defined landscape as a complex of geographically, functionally and historically interrelated ecosystems, or, more briefly, as " organised land" (i.e. organised by nature and by man). Although this definition differs from that adopted in the working group, they are not in conflict with each other. In this contribution, this definition is explained in more detail, with examples。
1.简介
1993年，在瓦赫宁根关于景观一致行动的第一次会议中，我定义景观为地理性，功能性和历史性相互关联的生态系统的综合体，或者，更简单地说，是为“组合性的地域”（即被自然和人类所组织起来的地域）。虽然这个定义和工作组所采用的定义不同，但是他们和对方并没有冲突。这个贡献性的定义附有更多详细的例子来进行解释。

2. Mapping
For planning and management of landscapes on any scale, maps are indispensable tools. Useful for this purpose are land use maps, vegetation maps, soil maps, hydrological maps etc. In my survey of sand dune areas, my starting point was vegetation, and the result I have called "landscape maps on a phytosociological basis".
2．制图
对于任何规模的景观规划和管理，地图是必不可少的工具。为此目的有用的就有土地利用图，植被图，土壤图，水文地图等。以我在沙丘地区的调查，我的出发点是植被，由此我写了一篇名为“植物群落基础上的景观图”的论文。
In my opinion, however, units of the phytosociological classification system in most cases are not suitable as mapping units. To begin with, local patches of vegetation often do not fit into these units。Other reasons are partly a matter of scale, partly of content.
然而，在我看来，在大多数情况下植物群落分类系统的单位并不适合作为测绘单位。首先，当地的植被板块往往不适合这些单位，其他原因还包括部分内容，规模问题。
A landscape contains a complex of concrete vegetation patches, some of which may cover many hectares, others only a few m e. Vegetation classifications are mainly based on species composition and structure of plant communities, dependent on present and past variation in environment, and showing extreme variation in minimal area of the (abstract) units, from a few dm2 to 1000 m 2 or more.
一个景观包含了具体的植被板块的组合，其中有些植被可能覆盖好几公顷，其他植物群落只有几平方米，植被分类主要基于植物群落物种的组成和结构，取决于目前和过去​​的环境变化，并在最小面积单位2分米到1000平方米或以上呈现出极端的变化（摘要）。
The smaller sized units cannot be neglected because they may be at least as important as the larger ones from an ecological or practical viewpoint e.g. because of the occurrence of good indicator species or species of conservational or economic importance(communities of steep north slopes in the sand dunes, of small stream beds in a desert, of ditch banks in a polder), In contrast to this, mapping units are, by definition, geographical units, as such dependant on scale, and for this reason mostly containing more than one vegetation unit (except on very large scale maps, e.g. 1:1000).
较小的单位不能被忽视，因为他们可能至少从生态或实际的角度来看都同样和较大的单位同等重要，例如因为良好的指示物种或保护型物种或具有经济重要性意义（在北坡陡峭的沙丘，沙漠中的小河床以及圩田废弃的堤坝上的植被群落）的出现，与此相反，测绘单位，顾名思义，也就是地理单位，对测量尺度如此的依赖，就这样的原因以致于拥有不止一个的植被单位（除了非常大的比例尺的地图，如1:1000）。
In the second place, a mapping unit signifies much more than vegetation only. A part of the surface of a good topographical map or an aerial photograph mostly shows substrates which are not covered by vegetation: ploughed fields, open water, road surfaces and buildings, rocks etc., and in the case of deserts, beaches or glaciers these are even predominant.
其次，只有测绘单位比植被单位更有标志性意义得多。一个良好的地形图或航拍照片表面的一部分，主要是显示不被植被覆盖的基板：耕地，地表水，路面，建筑物及岩石等，并就沙漠，海滩或冰川而言，这些甚至是显著的的。
A prominent feature of a landscape is its geomorphology, even in flat countries. Vegetation patterns are almost always determined by geomorphology, with its underlying soil diversity; the same holds for hydrological conditions. Patterns of soil meso- and microclimate and animal communities are not so easily visible, but are also equally important landscape components.
景观的一个突出特点是它的地貌，即使在平坦的国家。植被格局几乎都是由地貌背后的土壤多样性决定的，水文条件也相同。中小型土壤，气候和动物群落的模式不是那么容易看到，但也同样是景观重要的组成部分。
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3. F u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
功能关系
If a landscape map is to be used for planning or management, i.e. to be more than a nice coloured abstract picture, it must be based on functional relationships between all landscape attributes.
如果一个景观图用作规划或管理，换言之而不仅仅是一个漂亮的彩色抽象图片，它必须是基于所有的景观属性之间的功能关系。
These relationships are the basis of the ecosystem concept. Vegetation and soil are so closely interwoven and interdependent, that no clear line can be drawn between them.
这些关系都是生态系统概念的基础。植被和土壤是如此紧密地相互依存交织在一起，以致于没有明确的界限可以把他们之间划开。
Roots are constantly absorbing matter from the soil, dying roots and litter are constantly adding matter to the soil. Similar spacial and functional relationships exist between vegetation and the atmosphere, vegetation and fauna, soil and groundwater, soil and micro-organisms etc.
根从土壤中不断吸收物质，垂死的根和枯枝落叶不断增加土壤含量。同样的空间以及功能关系存在于植被与大气，植被和动物，土壤和地下水，土壤和微生物等之间。
Vegetation is dependent on soil and atmospheric conditions, microclimate is determined by vegetation structure, mycorrhizae and insect larvae are found inside plant bodies.
植被依赖于土壤和大气条件，小气候被植被结构所决定，菌根真菌和昆虫幼虫都在植物体内所发现。
A raindrop is part of the atmosphere at one moment, part of the soil the next moment, and part of the vegetation a little later.
一滴雨前一秒钟还是大气的一份子，下一秒就降到了土壤中，不一会儿就被植被吸收了。
Distinctions between these components of the system are only for human convenience. Within the systems, co-evolution of plant and animal species (e.g. flowers and pollinating insects) has been going on for many millions of years.
系统这些组件之间的区别仅仅也就是为了人类的方便。系统内，协同进化的植物和动物物种（例如花和传粉昆虫）已持续数百万年。
If we want to understand or manipulate nature, we must think in terms of systems: biomass, nutrient cycles, energy levels and pathways, trophic levels ( e.g. primary and secondary producers), relationships between diversity and stability.
如果我们想要了解或操纵自然，我们必须从系统的角度来考虑：生物量，营养物循环，能量级和途径，营养级（如初级和中级生产者），多样性和稳定性之间的关系。
The importance of this approach for agriculture, forestry and conservation is self-evident. The difference between conventional and ecological agriculture may be described as a much increased emphasis on the ecosystem point of view.
这种做法对农业，林业和保护自然的重要性是不言而喻的。从生态系统的角度来看，传统和生态农业之间的差异可以被描述成一件极其重要的事情。
Therefore, the concept of landscapes as ecosystems should, I think, be welcome in this circle. Systems exist on many levels, from atom to universe. This has created much confusion, so we must be careful with our language.
因此，作为生态系统的景观的概念，我认为，应该在这个圈子受到里欢迎。系统存于在许多层面上，从原子到宇宙。这就造成了很大的混乱，所以我们必须小心我们的语言。
It depends on our purpose, which level to choose as a focal point. Ecosystems are all systems which contain biotic and abiotic components, which are interdependent.
这取决于我们的目的，选择哪一级作为关注点。生态系统是包括生物和非生物组成部分所有的系统，它们是相互依存的。
A single ecosystem is homogeneous in the characteristics just mentioned. Land use, vegetation structure, species composition, soil development and ground water conditions should at the least be homogeneous.
按照刚才所描述的，生态系统是均质的。土地利用，植被结构，物种组成，土壤发展和地表水的条件至少应该是均质的。
A complete ecosystem needs a minimum area, which is e.g. determined by the space needed for the functioning of nutrient cycles and of all groups of organisms, belonging to it.  
一个完整的生态系统需要一个有限的地域空间，如营养循环和所有生物有机体运作所需要的属于它的空间。
A landscape is heterogeneous in this respect: it involves a mosaic or zonation of homogeneous ecosystems. It may contain pioneer and climax communities, rock outcrops, dune ridges and slacks etc. Functional relationships between the single ecosystems may exist via erosional and depositional processes, influence on atmospheric and groundwater conditions, movement of seeds and litter and via animals (e.g. birds with different biotopes for breeding and for feeding).
一个自然景观在这方面是混杂的：涉及一个马赛克或带状式均质化的生态系统。它可能包含有先进和顶级群落，露岩，沙丘脊和松散地等。单一的生态系统之间可能存在通过侵蚀和沉积过程，植物种子及垃圾通过动物（如为鸟类繁殖和喂养的不同群落生境）携带而影响大气和地下水的条件的功能关系。
In our (Wageningen) landscape studies of Dutch coastal areas we have created a system of landscape units, mainly on the basis of vegetation soil complexes and geomorphology. These units could be distinguished in the field and on aerial photographs.
（瓦赫宁根）荷兰沿海地区的景观研究让我们主要基础于对植被土壤复合体和地貌上创建了一个系统的景观单位。这些单位可以被田野和空拍的照片来区分。
Studies of geological and land use history have shown, that our units are indicative of these historical processes and origins. In this case, we have studied natural and semi-natural landscapes (Doing and Westhoff, 1976). The question is whether this approach is also suitable for cultural landscapes.
地质学和土地利用的历史的研究表明，我们的单位是这些历史进程和起源的标志。在这种情况下，我们已经研究了自然和半自然景观（杜音和维斯托夫，1976年）。问题是这种做法是否也适用于文化景观。
In my contribution on a Swiss mountain village (Doing, 1994), I have already made a step in this direction. shall indicate some further steps in the following remarks.
我在瑞士山村（杜音，1994年）的稿件已经在这个方向迈出的一步。应在以下的言论中进一步解释了。
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4. Man as a master factor in the functioning of landscapes
人类作为景观机能中的主宰因子
Just as in the evolution of organisms, succession of ecosystems shows a tendency towards lesser dependence from the environment, reaching a greater resistance towards environmental fluctuations.
正如生物进化，生态系统的演变显示了对环境依赖较少的倾向，对环境波动造成较大的阻力。
In other words: to create an own environment, become more stable, more self-supporting. E.g.: microclimate and soil moisture show much smaller fluctuations in a forest than in a pioneer ecosystem. Human influence on landscapes results in more "openness" of landscapes as ecosystems, and relatively greater dependence on abiotic conditions.
换句话说：就是创建一个自己的环境并让它变得更加稳定，更加自我支持。如：森林中的气候和土壤湿度要比在先驱生态系统中显示的波动小得多。人类活动对景观的影响造成更多“开放性”的像生态系统的景观，对非生物条件的依赖相对更大。
A natural landscape, including top-predators (wolf, lynx) shows a maximum of cyclic processes, involving organisms (from seeds or eggs to destruction and mineralization of bodies), nutrients, water and energy.
一个自然景观，包括顶级掠食性动物（狼，猞猁）显示最大的循环过程，涉及生物（从种子或蛋的损坏和矿化），营养素，水和能源。
Human impacts, in the history toward nowadays "modern" (conventional) agriculture, can mostly be described as increasing in- and outputs. Seeds, plants, animals (mostly of non-native species), fertilizers, fodder etc. are imported from elsewhere, often even from other continents; biomass is removed from the land (harvested), creating pioneer like communities. The role of predators is taken over by man (who can no longer be viewed as part of the landscape).
人类活动的影响，从历史在走向当今“现代”（常规）农业，大多可以被视为进口和出口的增加。植物，动物（主要是对非本土物种），肥料，饲料等都是从其他地方进口，甚至常常从其他各大洲。大量悬浮生物被迁移至其他地方（收获季节），创建先进的生物群落，人类成为猎食角色的接管人（人类可以不再被视为景观的一部分）。
Erosion and run-off of rainwater is increased, atmospheric deposition is world-wide imported from areas with industry and bio-industry. There are less and less local or regional ecosystems: this is part of the so-called enlargement of scales.
由于工业和生物工业等领域的不断发展，侵蚀和雨水径流增加，全球大气沉降显著。地方或区域的生态系统越来越少：这是所谓的尺度扩大的一部分。
Many of the ideas and principles of ecological agriculture are directed towards the re-enforcement of the functioning of local ecosystems and small-scale landscapes, reducing inputs and outputs in quantity, improving it in quality for use by man, saving energy.
许多生态农业的思路和原则是针对重新加强当地生态系统和小规模景观的功能，减少投入和产出的数量，改善供人使用的质量，节能降耗。
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5. Examples of landscapes 景观范例
Our coastal sand dunes are strongly influenced by man, but natural processes have always predominated. Therefore, the visual aspect is that of a largely unparcelled landscape.
我们沿海沙丘受到人类强烈的影响，但自然进程始终占主导地位。因此，视觉方面是一个巨大的开放性的景观。
For plant and animal production, they have always been small-output and even smaller input areas. Except for small numbers of goats, of cattle and of isolated areas with potato fields or sown pastures in moist slacks, flora and fauna have always been spontaneous in most areas (including completely naturalized species like rabbits).
对于植物和动物产品，他们一直都是小产出和输入的地区。除了小数量的山羊，牛和偏远地区的马铃薯或者在湿地的人工草场，植物群和动物群一直自发的在大部分地区繁殖（包括像兔子一样完全归化的物种）。
Only in special places these have been supported by planting marram grass (Ammophila) and native shrubs and trees. Locally, parcelled landscape and elements are present on a somewhat larger scale, mainly fields of cereals (now abandoned) and pine plantations (still present, but planting of conifers has been discontinued). The most drastic change, induced by man, is the extraction, later counteracted by