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单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。谢谢。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。谢谢,English LexicologyChapter 1,Basic concepts of words,and vocabulary,第1页,Abstract,This chapter gives a scientific definition of a word,discusses the relationship between sound and meaning,between sound and form,between words and vocabulary,puts forward the three main principles of lexical classification and elaborates on the features of basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary,content words and functional words,native words and borrowed words.,第2页,Main point,definition of a word,sound and meaning,sound and form,vocabulary,classification or words,basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary,content words and functional words,native words and borrowed words,第3页,What is a word?,A minimal free form of a language,A sound unity,A unit of meaning,A form that can function alone in a sentence,第4页,Definition of the word,A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and sentence function.,第5页,Another definition of the word,A combination of vocal sounds,or one such sound,used in a language to express an idea(e.g.to denote a thing,attribute,or relation),and constituting an ultimate minimal element of speech having a meaning as such;a vocable,（以语音、字母为单位而不以意义为单位）词，词外壳,.,Heidi Harley,English words,blackwell Publishing,第6页,One more definition of the word,An uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes,which typically occurs in the structure of phrases.,Howard Jackson,Words,meaning and vocabulary,Cassell Wellington House,第7页,Lexical and grammatical words,Lexical words:nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.,They have fairly independent meanings and may be meaningful even in isolation or in a series.,Grammatical words are elements like propositions,articles,conjunctions,forms indicating number or tense,and so on.,第8页,Characteristics of the word,The word is an uninterruptible unit.,The word may consist one or more morphemes.,The word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.,The word should belong to a specific word class or part of speech.,第9页,Simple and complex words,Simple words,word,and,if,we,thus,that,these,the,have,come,go,end,us,sum,sound,mean,Complex words,development,freely,different,differently,basically,meaning,misunderstand,misunderstanding,commonly,speaker,blackboard,classroom,textbook,viewpoint,go-between,sportsman,sportsmanship,sportwoman,第10页,What is a Chinese morpheme(,语素,)?,语素是最小语音语义结合体，是最小语言单位。语素是构词单位。语素也是组成成语、熟语等固定词组基础。,汉语语素语音形式是音节，书面形式是汉字。,(,胡裕树，当代汉语，,P194-5),词和语素都是语言单位；字是统计语言符号，是书写单位。,语素分类,单音节语素，读出来是一个音节，写下来是一个汉字。单音节语素在汉语里活动能量大，含有很大构词能力。,双音节语素，读出来是两个音节，写下来是两个汉字，但只表示一个意义。,多音节语素，基本上是音译外来词。（黄伯荣，当代汉语，甘肃人民出版社，,1983,）,第11页,What is a Chinese morpheme(,语素,)?,语素是音义相结合最小语言单位。,普通地说，一个语素就是一个音节，书面上就是一个汉字，有时侯还是一个词。不过音节是从语音学角度分析结果，文字是书面统计符号，语素则是语言中构词基本成份，词是指音义相结合能够独立利用最小语言单位。这四者角度不一样，并不是一回事。,1,、同一个汉字，能够代表不一样语素。,汉字即使相同，但读音不一样：会议,/,会计,汉字和读音都相同，不过词性不一样：老人,/,老虎,/,老是捣乱,汉字、读音和词性都相同，不过意义不一样：公家,/,公牛,2,、汉语语素绝大多数是单音节，但有时侯，一个汉字并不代表一个语素，只代表一个音节，也就是说，一个语素也能够是两个以上音节。,连绵词：磅礴；口语词：尴尬；音译词：咖啡，奥林匹克,3,、有时侯，一个汉字在不一样场所，有是语素，有不是语素。,马匹（语素）,/,马达（非语素）,（邵敬敏，当代汉通论，上海教育出版社，,，,P113-4,）,第12页,What is a Chinese word?,词，是意义单纯，语音形式独立、完整、固定，而且其中没有停顿语言建筑材料单位。（邢公畹，当代汉语教程，南开大学出版社，,P119,）,词是比语素高一级语言单位。,(,胡裕树，当代汉语，,P198),词是代表一定意义、含有固定语音形式、能够独立利用最小结构单位。,(,胡裕树，当代汉语，,P203),词，是指一定语音形式跟一定词汇意义相结合，而且能够独立利用最小语言单位。,（邵敬敏，当代汉通论，上海教育出版社，,，,P115-6,）,第13页,What is a Chinese word?,语素不等于词，它们区分主要是两点：第一，语素意义不太明确，也不太稳定。第二，愈加主要是语素不能独立利用，也不能自由地跟其它词语组合。不过因为古代汉语中一单音节词为主，有些语言单位，在一些场所就极难确定了。,语素以单音节为主，词则以多音节为主。,词语有显著双音节化趋势。,合成词内部结构跟短语结构大致一致。,（邵敬敏，当代汉通论，上海教育出版社，,，,P115-6,）,词和语素都表示意义，不过词表示意义比较明确、固定，而语素表示意义往往不大详细，或不很固定。,当代汉语里语素，多数是从古代汉语词演变来。因为受当代汉语构词双音化规律支配，古代单音词，许多都转化为当代汉语语素。,（黄伯荣，当代汉语，甘肃人民出版社，,1983,）,第14页,What is a Chinese phrase(词组)?,词组又叫“短语”，是大于词语言单位，是由两个或两个以上实词组成而不成为句子语言单位。,词和词组区分：,1,、意义上，词表示简单概念，词组复合概念。,2,、语法功效上，词是句法结构中最小独立利用单位，词组也是句法结构中利用单位，但不是最小，能够从中再分析为词单位。,3,、概念表示上，词所表示概念普通是比较单纯、固定，合成词里语素所表示意义是融合在一起，不是简单相加。,4,、成份之间结合关系上，合成词各个成份之间，结合关系是很紧密，不允许随便拆开来，或随意加进什么成份。词组各个成份之间，结合关系不是很紧密，能够拆开来解释，也能够加进另一些词。,(,胡裕树，当代汉语，,P204-5),第15页,What is a Chinese character(字)?,汉字基本上是一个表意文字。,汉字基本上是一个语素文字。,汉字在形体上表现为方块形。,汉字在语音上代表音节。,汉字在书面上不实施分词连写。,总之，当代汉字是一个表意性质语素文字。这是它区分于纯粹表音音素文字或音节文字基本特点。,（邵敬敏，当代汉通论，上海教育出版社，,）,第16页,What is a Chinese character(字)?,汉字是表意性质文字（字母文字是表音）。,汉字字形统计语音单位是音节。,汉字是平面型文字（字母是线性排列）。,汉字统计汉语不实施分词连写（字母文字词与词是分写，词内连写）。,(,胡裕树，当代汉语，,P152),字是能够独立利用最小语言单位（注意：汉语语法学家在此有很大分歧，不少人认为是词而不是字是最小语言单位）。,问题：字是否等于,word?,第17页,What is a Chinese character(字)?,汉字是形音义结合体。,字不但是语法结构基本单位，而且是个语言基本结构单位。,英语词特点：,1,、词是英语天然单位。,2,、词是英语民族认识世界基本单位。,3,、词是语言各个平面研究交汇点。,4,、词在语法上处于承上启下枢纽位置，是词法与句法交接点。,汉语中只有字与英语词有相同作用。只需将各点中词改为字即可。,（潘文国，字本位与汉字研究，华东师范大学出版社，,）,第18页,Sound and meaning,A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.,Each of the worlds culture has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons,things,places,properties,processes and activities outside the language system.,第19页,Sound and meaning,This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary.,There is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.,Lodwig and Barrett,1973,第20页,Sound and meaning,Book 书,Study 学习,Pair pear,夜 叶,气 汽,激光 laser,好(ho)吃，好(ho)吃，豪吃,我是,教,授。/他会,教,授我们一些手艺。,我们是来投诉/投宿（西游记：孙悟空语）。,第21页,Sound and form,The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form.,The written form should agree with the oral form.That is,the sound should be similar to the form.,This is true of English in its earliest stage(Old English),and true of Spanish and Italian,and Esperanto,but always not true of Modern English.,第22页,Why the written form is not always similar to the oral form?,The development of the language,26 letters from Romans for 46 sounds in English,The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.,Some of the differences were created by the early scribes.,第23页,Why the written form is not always similar to the oral form?,Printing helped to freeze the spelling of words and dictionaries helped to stop spelling changes while sounds continued to change,which brought more differences between sound and form.,Word borrowing from other languages,which has enriched English vocabulary,but led to differences between sound and form.,第24页,Vocabulary,Definition,All the words in a language,All the words use in a particular historical period,All the words of a given dialect,a given book,a given discipline,All the words possessed by an individual person,第25页,Active and Passive Vocabulary,Active vocabulary/,productive vocabulary:,speaking vocabulary,writing vocabulary,Passive vocabulary/,receptive vocabulary,:listening vocabulary,reading vocabulary,guessing vocabulary,第26页,Classification of words,Basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary,The basic word stock:,1.the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries,2.form the common core of the language,3.constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary,but it is the most important part of the language.,第27页,Characteristics of basic words,1.All national character,Natuaral phenomena,Human body and relations,Names of plants and animals,Action,size,domain,state,Numerals,pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,第28页,Characteristics of basic words,2.Stability,in use for years,3.Productivity,with affixes and compounding,4.Polysemy,many meanings,5.Collocability,set expressions,idiomatic usages,proverbial sayings,etc,第29页,Nonbasic words,Terminology,(,术语,),technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas,e.g.laser(,激光,),power(,幂,),语法化，语义，释义，例证，二语习得,第30页,Nonbasic words,Jargon,(,行话,),specialized vocabularies by which members of,particular,arts,sciences,trades and,professions,communicate among themselves,a kind of language that is hard to understand because it is full of special words known only to the people of a certain group,e.g.corner ball(,角球,),ESP(,特殊用途英语,=English for special purposes),answer sheet(,答卷,),手球，擦边球,第31页,Nonbasic words,Slang,(,俚语,),sub-standard,language,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including,informal,ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant,jargon,and argot,all of which are associated with,or most available to,specific groups of the population.,e.g.buck(,美元,),go bananas(,发疯,),捣浆糊，粉丝，月光族,第32页,Nonbasic words,Argot,(,隐语，黑话,),jargon of criminals,a kind of speech spoken and understood by a small class of people,especially criminals,such as thieves,robbers,etc,e.g.can-opener(,万能钥匙，开罐刀具,),把他,做了,，趟混水,第33页,Nonbasic words,Dialectal words,(,方言词,),words used only by speakers of the dialect in question,e.g.hame(=home,Scottish English),摆龙门阵，侃大山,第34页,Nonbasic words,Archaisms,(,古旧词语,),words of forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use,e.g.marquis(,侯爵,),quean(a badly behaved woman),太监，朝廷，朕,第35页,Nonbasic words,Neologisms,(,新词语,),newly-created/coined words or expressions,or words that have taken on new meanings,sometimes call vogue words,meaning they are newly popular and much used,e.g.futurology(,未来学,),bionics(,仿生学,),disproduct(,水货，伪劣产品,),爽，酷，旧闻，超女，超男，沙发,博客,播客，黑客，晒客，,海归,海派，海漂,第36页,Nonbasic words,Nonce words,(,暂时词,),New words are being invented on introduced all the time.Sometimes a new word is produced by a,single person only,in some special situations,.These words are call nonce words,that is,words coined for one occasion,and never occur again,also call nonce formation.,e.g.yo-yo(,摇摆,),non-U(,行为土气，,U,代表,upper class),保先（保持先进性），传单（传染性单核细胞增多症），德福，面，特嫌（特务嫌疑），曌,第37页,水门：艳照门,短信门，偷税门（杭州女装），手机门，讲解门（黄健翔），离婚门（影视明星），点球门（孙继海没犯规却被罚：08-3-31）罢飞门（08-4-2，东航18飞行员返航），返航门（4.6同一事件），口误门（中央台播音员播错澳大利亚首都为悉尼）,第38页,Nonbasic words,Colloquialism,(,俗词,),Used in ordinary,familiar,or informal conversations,e.g.daddy,mommy,tell of(,批评,),brolly(,伞,),打，大巴，爹地，妈咪,第39页,Nonbasic words,Vulgarisms,(,粗鄙词,),Words not usually used by educated persons,e.g.bloody(,该死，非常,=damned),gen(,先生,=gentleman),shit(,放屁，呸,),靠，他妈,(TMD),第40页,Content and functional words,Content words,denote clear notions and thus are known as,notional words,:,nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs and numerals,which denote objects,phenomena,action,quality,state,degree,quantity,etc,constitute the main body of the English vocabulary,numerous,the number is ever growing,e.g.door,chair,work,begin,active,occasionally,第41页,Content and functional words,Functional words,not have notions of their own,also called,empty words,express the relation between notions,the relation between words and sentences,known as,form words,make up a small number of the English vocabulary,remain stable,do far more work of expression in English on average than content words,e.g.to,the,a,this,and,will,ought to,according to,within,beneath,第42页,Native and borrowed words,Native words,words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes:the Anglos,the Saxons,the Jutes,known as Anglo-Saxon words,5000 to 60000,form the mainstream of the,basic word stock,and stand at the core of the language,e.g.rise,walk,work,run,begin,do,break,fight,swim,win,help,stand,gather,follow,shall,will,第43页,Characteristics of native words,1.All national character,2.Stability,3.Productivity,4.Polysemy,5.Collocability,The above five characteristics are the same as basic words,第44页,Characteristics of native words,6.Neutral in style,denote the commonest things in human society,used by all people,in all places,on all occasions,and at all times,not stylistically specific,e.g.bright(E)brilliant(F),force(E)compel(F),第45页,Characteristics of native words,7.Frequent in use,most frequently used in everyday speech and writing,the percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent,第46页,Characteristics of native words,Author or book,Native words%,Foreign words%,Spenser,86,14,Shakespeare,90,10,King James Bible,94,6,Milton,81,19,Swift,80,20,Johnson,72,28,Gibbon,70,30,Tennyson,88,12,第47页,Borrowed words,Loan words/borrowings,The English language has vast debts.In any dictionary some 80%of the entries are borrowed.,Encyclopedia Americana,1980,Vol.10,p.423,第48页,Classifications of borrowed words,Denizens,borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into English,have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling,e.g.pork porc(F),port portus(L),第49页,Classifications of borrowed words,Aliens,borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling,e.g.kowtow(Chinese),bazaar(,义卖会）,(Persian),第50页,Classifications of borrowed words,Translation-loans,words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language,e.g.,words translated according to the meaning,mother tongue lingua materna(L),black humour humour noir(F),words translated according to the sound,lama(Tibetan),tzar(Russian),第51页,Classifications of borrowed words,Semantic loans,words not borrowed with reference to the form,their meanings are borrowed,that is,English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language,e.g.dumb(stupid)dumm(German),第52页,Questions and tasks,5.What is vocabulary?,Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum of all the words of a language.It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect,a given book,a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.,第53页,Questions and tasks,Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.,Sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refer to.Sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and their connection is arbitrary and conventional.For example,tree/tri:/refers to,树,in English,because the English-speaking people have agreed to do so just as Chinese people use/shu/to refer to the same thing.This explains why people of different languages use different sound to express the same concept.Even in the same language,the same sound can have different meaning,e.g.pear and pair.,第54页,Questions and tasks,Explain neologisms with examples.,Neologisms are newly-created words or old words with new meanings.For example,in the fast-developing information era,a large number of new terms are created in computer science,such as internet,email,data bank,cyberspace,which are brand-new words.There are also old words which have acquired new meaning,such as mouse,（鼠标）,monitor,（监视器）,etc.,第55页,Questions and tasks,How do you account for the role of native words in English in relation to loan-words?,Native words are those of Anglo-Saxon origin,which are small in number.Loan-words are borrowed from other languages.It is estimated loan-words constitute 80%of the modern English vocabulary.Native words cannot compare with loan-words in number,but have a more important role in the language.Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock whereas only a limited number of borrowed words belong to the common core.,第56页,Additional Exercises,I.True or false,a.A word can be defined in different ways from different point
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