语言教师心理学重点整理.doc

Psychology study of the mind and behavior; from the functions of the brain; thoughts, feelings and actions.
Educational psychology: study of learners, leaning and teaching; to us :the accumulated knowledge, wisdom, a theory that every teacher should possess to intelligently solve the daily problems of teaching. Cognitive psychology：Concerned with the way in which the human mind thinks and learns (mental process involved in learning)
The positivist school (positivism)-Behaviorism (imitation repetition environment): Skinner: S-R-R
Behaviorism: only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than acquisition of new behavior Information processing: is concerned with the way in which people take information, process it and act upon it, attention, perception and memory are focused on. Constructivism: the main underlying assumption of constructivism is that individuals are actively involved right from birth in constructing personal meaning, that is their own personal understanding, from their experiences. In other words, everyone makes own sense of the world and the experiences that surround them
Cognitive psychology: information processing (attention perception memory): input-sensory register-immediate memory-working memory-long-term memory constructivism (constructing interaction adjusting) :Piaget
Humanism: Humanistic “theories” of learning tend to be highly value-driven and hence more like prescriptions(about what ought to happen) rather than descriptions（of what does happen）They emphasize the “natural desire’’ of everyone to learn. Whether this natural desire is to learn whatever it is you are teaching, however, is not clear. Humanism (Affect/values self-concept/self-esteem needs) Maslow:hierarchy of needs层次需求理论Basic physiological needs, need for safety and security; interpersonal closeness; self-esteem (deficiency needs), cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, self-actualisation (being needs)
Social interactionism (mediation ZPD learning environment): Vygotsky: mediation, zone of proximad development
A social constructivist model of the teaching-learning process 4个因素互相作用. Teachers select tasks（reflect their beliefs about teaching and learning）. Learners interpret tasks in ways that are meaningful and personal to them as individuals. The task is therefore the interface between the teacher and learners. Teachers and learners also interact with each other. The context in which the learning takes place will play an important part in shaping what happens within it. This includes the emotional/physical/political environment, the whole school ethos, the wider social environment and the cultural setting.
Nine key factors contribute to effective teaching: clarity of presentation; teacher enthusiasm; variety of activities during lessons; achievement-oriented behavior in classrooms; opportunity to learn criterion material; acknowledgement and stimulation of student ideas; (lack of)criticism; use of structuring comments at the beginning and during lessons; guiding of student answers.
Ten categories were identified as representing elements of good teaching: creating a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom; retaining control in the classroom; presenting work in an interesting and motivating way; providing conditions so pupils understand the work; making clear what pupils are to do and achieve; judging what can be expected of a pupil; helping pupils with difficulties; encouraging pupils to raise their expectations of themselves; developing personal, mature relationships with pupil; demonstrating personal talents or knowledge.
Beliefs about learners—Meighan suggests that learners may be construed metaphorically as: resisters; receptacles; raw material; clients; partners; individual explorers; democratic explorers
Teachers’ beliefs about themselves：（based on humanism）Teachers are humanistic teachers and persons, teaching is essentially a personal expression of the self; permission to be oneself; knowing the meaning if teaching
Learner-centered teaching (cognition, knowledge) person-centered (whole person, emotion, humanistic)
Mediation: a term used by psychologists of the social interactionist school to refer to the part played by other significant people in the learners’ lives, who enhance their learning by selecting and shaping the learning experiences presented to them.
ZPD: term used to refer to the layer of skill or knowledge which is just beyond that with which the learner is currently capable of coping.
Key features of mediation: significance; purpose beyond the here and now; shared intention; a sense of competence; control of own behavior; goal-setting; challenge; awareness of charge; a belief in positive outcomes; sharing; individuality; a sense of belonging.
Individual characteristics：Cognitive style (field dependence/independence); motivation; anxiety(be anxious); aptitude
Field dependence: perception is dominated by the whole context; perceive things in relation to the context;
Field independence: perceive items as discrete or unrelated to the surrounding “field”Aptitude: specific talent for language learning
Motivation: a state of temporary or prolonged goal-oriented behavior which individuals actively choose to engage in. Locus of control: refer to a person’s beliefs about control over life events---internalisers: some people feel personally responsible for everything that happens to them in their lives. Externalisers: other people feel that events in their lives are all determined by forces beyond their control.
Self-concept: a global term referring to the amalgamation of all of our perceptions and conceptions about ourselves which give rise to our sense of personal identity.—self-image: the particular view that we have of ourselves; self-esteem: the evaluative feelings associated with our self-image; self-efficacy: our beliefs about our capabilities in certain areas or related to certain tasks.
Attribution theory: explains how people view the causes of their behaviors and those of others. A central aspect of Heider’s theory was that it was how people perceived events rather than the events in themselves that influenced behavior.
4 main elements of attribution: ability；effort; task difficulty; luck (stable/unstable internal/external) (3dimensions causality.stability.controuability) 归因因人而异各有差异
Locus of causality: whether people see themselves or others as the cause of their actions
Gardner defines motivation as referring to a combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitudes towards learning the language. Gardner also makes distinction between integrative and instrumental orientations in motivation: An integrative orientation occurs when the learner is studying a language because of a wish to identify with the culture of speakers of that language. Instrumental orientation describes a group of factors concerned with motivation arising from external goals.
A proposed definition of motivation: may be construed as a state of cognitive and emotional arousal, which leads to a conscious decision to act, and which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort, in order to attain a previously set goal.
A three-stage model of motivation: reasons for doing something—deciding to do something—sustaining the effort or persisting
Dimensions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: preference for challenge vs. preference for easy work; curiosity/interest vs. pleasing teacher/getting grades; independent mastery vs. dependence on teacher in figuring out problems; independent judgment vs. reliance on teacher’s judgment about what to do; internal criteria for success vs. external criteria for success.
Internal factors influence one’s motivation: intrinsic interest of activity; perceived value of activity; sense of agency; mastery; self-concept; attitudes; other affective states; development age and stage; gender. External: significant others (parents, teachers, peers); the nature of interaction with significant others; the learning environment; the broader context
Differences between learning strategies and learning skills: learning strategies are conceived of as operating at a level above skills; they can be seen as the executive process which manage and coordinate the skills. A learning strategy is a serious of skills used with a particular learning purpose in mind. Thus, learning strategies involve an ability to monitor the learning situation and respond accordingly.
Cognitive strategies: are seen as mental processes directly concerned with the processing of information in order to learn, that are for obtaining, storage, retrieval or use of information. Metacognitive strategies: operate at a different level, which involve learners stepping outside their learning, as it were, and looking at it from outside.
Rubin: learning/communication/social strategies. Cognitive:1, clarification/verification refers to strategies used by learners to check whether their understanding of a rule or language item is correct. 2, Guessing/inductive inferencing refers to various strategies concerned with making hypotheses about how the language works. In order to make suitable hypotheses, learners need t be able to select appropriate information, attend to what is important, hold a number of pieces of information in the head, and use information from the context and their world knowledge as well as samples of the language. 3, Deductive reasoning is a strategy where the learner uses a knowledge of general rules to produce or understand language. 4, Practice is concerned with storage and retrieval of information, and ways of organizing the information for storage. This category includes mnemonic strategies and using lexical grouping. 6, Monitoring refers to learners’ checking of their own performance, including noticing errors and observing how a message is received.
Oxford: cognitive : Practicing; Receiving and sending messages; Analyzing and reasoning; Creating structure for input and output.
Task: Basically, is anything that learners are given to do (or choose to do) in the language classroom to further the process of language learning. Psycholinguistic, seen as a forum within which such meaningful interaction between two or more participants can take place.
Task consists of: input data, activities or procedures, goals, roles of teachers, roles of learners, a setting

Theme-centered interaction (three major elements): I(includes both implicit contributions like experience feelings attitudes skills and explicit contributions through language like information perceptions) We(learning takes place in the framework of group, interaction is affected by group) Theme(represent more than a topic, is seen as a dynamic element taking shape in an interactional process that mediates learners’ interest)
Ecological perspective the way psychological researchers and practitioners have made sense of various forms of influence exerted by different aspects of the learning environment Microsystem(develop child’s more important relationships with parents teachers siblings peers)Mesosystem(interactions of important people in the developing child’s life, e.g.home-school relationships)Ecosystem(interactions of others will have an indirect effect on the learner,e.g. nature of a teacher’s personal relationships outside school)Macrosystem(involves whole culture of society in which people live,e.g. imposition of a national curriculum)
Ecolinguistics: a new branch of linguistics which investigates the role of language in the development and possible solution of ecological and environmental problems.
There is a difference between learning and education; learners learn what is meaningful to them; learners learn in ways that are meaningful to them; learners learn better if they feel in control of what they are learning; learning is closely linked to how people feel about themselves; learning takes place in a social context through interaction with other people; what teachers do in the classroom will reflect their own beliefs and attitudes; there is a significant role for the teacher as mediator in the language classroom; learning tasks represent an interface between teachers and learners; learning is influenced by the situation in which it occurs.

Behaviorism: Idea: Language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit-formation. The focus is environment ;Mistakes (correct immediately). Influence on Foreign teaching: Correct students’ mistakes too often; Teacher-centered way of teaching; Teach separate language. Audio-lingual method is used；老师明白教什么；任务分成步骤按学生自我速度；提供积极的reinforcement
Comment:强调家长和老师在设置appropriate learning conditions和确保particular kinds of behavioral consequences be ignored; notion of reinforcement impact 在shaping 人的行为;only observable behavior deny the sense learners seek to make 自我世界，cognitive process(重要因素）
Information processing: Comment：mechanistic, no emotions 启示：相信我们可以帮助学生使其更好；不强调the way individual seeks to bring a sense of personal meaning to their worlds
Constructivism: Jean Piaget It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. 局：强调个人经验，没有地方给direct instruction in teaching 启示：把学生作为个体考虑进去;思考和其与语言和经历的关系成为学习的中心；match任务要求与能力适当；assimilation accommodation的运用
Humanism: Abraham Maslow:Self-actualization Psychology (自我实现理论) human must meet basic needs two categories deficiency 、being needs
Implications of humanism for ELT 运用：Affective-Humanistic Approach：The Silent Way；The Community Language Learning (CLL) Suggestopedia Implications of humanism for ELT Based on psychology; consider affective aspects; treat whole person;看到学习环境的重要性
Differences between cognitive, humanistic and social interactionist theories focuses on what the learner brings to any learning situation as , an active meaning-maker and problem-solver； whole person education； learning takes place through interactions with many other things