英汉礼貌用语对比研究-文学学士毕业论文.doc

Abstract
This paper is a comparative study on the different use of polite language between English and Chinese. As an universal phenomenon, politeness exists in all kinds of cultures，which plays a vital role not only in maintaining friendly relationship between human beings but also in creating the harmonious atmosphere conversation. As English-speaking countries and China have different cultures, they use different ways to express their own polite words and deeds, and the different nationalities’ understanding of polite language always affects the effective cross-culture communication between them. What is more, it would causes unsuccessful cross-cultural communication. A comparative study of polite language between English and Chinese, will urge English learners to reduce the faults in using cross-cultural language, and will simultaneously achieve effective human communication through using appropriately polite expressions.
Key Words: polite language; communication; comparative study; cultural differences

中文摘要
礼貌是人们在频繁的交往中彼此表示尊重与友好的行为规范。礼貌现象存在于各种不同的文化之中，对于保持人们之间的友好关系，建立和谐的谈话气氛起着重要的作用。英汉国家由于受到不同文化的影响，会用不同的方式来表达自己的礼貌言行，而不同的民族对礼貌的理解各不同，这就往往影响英汉双方进行有效的跨文化交际，甚至会导致跨文化交际的失败。通过对比研究英汉礼貌用语的差异，会促使英语学习者在跨文化交际中减少语用失误，同时达到使用恰当的礼貌用语进行有效交际的目的。
关键词：礼貌用语；交际；比较研究；文化差异

Contents
Abstract i
中文摘要 ii
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Aim and objectives 1
1.3 Organization of the paper 1
2. Literature Review 2
3. A comparative Study of Polite Language Between English and Chinese 4
3.1 Addressing form 4
3.2 Greetings 5
3.3 Polite language for inviting 6
3.4 Polite language for apologizing and thanking 7
3.5 The differences of private word in English and Chinese 8
4. The Investigation of Dominant Cultural Influence on Politeness and Strategies for Improving Cross-cultural Communication 9
4.1 The dominant cultural patterns which influence polite language 9
4.2 Strategies for improving cross-cultural communication 10
5. Conclusion 11
References 12
Acknowledgements 13

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Studies on comparative study of polite language between English and Chinese have gain great attention at home and abroad, and thus large quantities of literature on the study of learning comparative study of polite language between English and Chinese were published. The main function of politeness expressions is to establish and maintain good interpersonal relationships. Due to the different culture between English and Chinese, the polite language is quite different. Contemporary, English has been as an important international language. As the economic developing very fast in China, it’ s international position is more and more important as well. So whether it is for English learners or foreigners, intercultural communication becomes more and more important. In order to avoid the verbal misunderstanding and failure in communication, ensure smooth communication, people should learn the differences polite language between English and Chinese.
1.2 Aim and objectives
This study aims to find out the differences of polite language between English and Chinese in order to avoid verbal misunderstanding and failure in communication. This paper tries to analyze the cultural differences affect the polite language in English and Chinese, and points out that the comparative study will help us to reduce the pragmatic failure and achieve the cross-cultural communication.
To be specific, this study attempts to answer the following three questions: (1)What is the purpose to analyze this study? (2) What causes the differences of polite language between English and Chinese? (3) What should we learn during this study?
1.3 Organization of the paper
This paper is divided into five chapters. Chapter one serves as an overall introduction to the rationale and aim of the study. Chapter two reviews the definitions of politeness that have been proposed by scholars at home and abroad. Chapter three analyzes the differences in addressing, greeting, inviting, and apologizing and thanking by comparison. Chapter four analyzes the specific cultural assumptions, and put forward suggestions on how to improve the cross-cultural communication. Chapter five is devoted to the conclusion in which we find out the differences of polite language between English and Chinese in order to improve the cross-cultural communication.
2. Literature Review
Politeness, in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another people’s face. (George Yule, 2004, 10:60)
In the early 50s, the American scholar E. Goftman had put forward the “face behavior theory” in terms of sociology. Brown and Levinson（1978）view politeness as “a complex system for softening face-threatening acts.” On the basis of the theory of E Goftman’s , in 1978, Brown and Levinson have put forward the mature “face behavior theory” in their book ‘Universals in Language usage politeness phenomena’. And they tried to regard “face behavior theory” as a common linguistic phenomenon to study.
As far as 1702, Theophrastus defined politeness as “a social behavior; a skill to be used to achieve a specific aim, the principal aim is enhancement of ego’s self-esteem and his/her public status in her eyes of others with supplementary aim of enhancing others’ self-esteem.(Watts,1992)
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (1980), politeness means the attempt to establish, maintain and save face during conversation.
Lakoff (1973) holds the view that politeness is a device used in order to reduce friction in personal interaction.
Leech (1983) interprets politeness as form of behavior aimed at the establishment and maintenance of comity, i.e., the ability of Participants in a socio-communicative interaction to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony. Further more, Leech put forward six politeness principles to restrict interpersonal communication. The first one is Tact Maxim(得体准则): (a)Minimize cost to other (尽量少让别人吃亏), (b)Maximize benefit to other (尽量多使别人受益). The second one is Generosity Maxim (慷慨准则)：(a) Minimize benefit to self (尽量少让自己受益)，(b)Maximize cost to self (尽量多使自己吃亏). The third one is Approbation Maxim (赞誉准则)：(a) Minimize dispraise of other (尽量少贬低别人)；（b）Maximize praise of other (尽量多赞誉别人). The fourth one is Modesty Maxim (谦虚准则): (a)Minimize praise of self(尽量少赞誉自己)；（b）Maximize dispraise of self (尽量多贬低自己). The fifth one is Agreement Maxim (一致准则)：(a) Minimize disagreement between self and other (尽量减少双方的分歧)；（b）Maximize agreement between self and other (尽量增加双方的一致). The last one is Sympathy Maxim (同情准则)：(a) Minimize antipathy between self and other (尽量减少双方的反感)；（b）Maximize sympathy between self and other (尽量增加双方的同情).（Leech,1983）
Grundy (1995) consider politeness as “the term we use to extent to which actions, the way things are said, match addressees perceptions of how they should be performed.”
Kasper (1990) view that“Politeness is therefore a term to refer to the strategies available to interactions to defuse the danger and to minimize the antagonism.”
House (2001) says politeness is a socio-cultural phenomenon, roughly to be defined as showing, or appearing to show, consideration to other.
In China, the concept of politeness can be traced back of the notion to 礼（rite）. It refers to the social hierarchy and order of the slave society of the Zhou Dynasty (He, 1995). Two or three hundreds later, the notion of礼 gained the meaning of politeness. In 《礼记》(the Book of Rites), which is one of the six Confucian classic complied by Dai Sheng(辞海，1979), the classical notion of 礼 was descried as “to humble yourself but show respect to other.” Professor Gu (1990) from Beijing International Studies University puts it that there are basically four notions underlying the conception of 礼貌. There are respectfulness, which refers to self’s positive appreciation or admiration of other concerning face, social status and so on; modesty, which is a way to show self-denigration; attitudinal warmth , which involves self’s demonstration of kindness, consideration and hospitality to other; and refinement, which refers to self’s behavior to other which meets certain standards. These are the key components of Chinese concept of politeness.

3. A Comparative Study of Polite Language between English and Chinese
3.1 Addressing form
3.1.1 Different addressing forms in relations
According to modern dictionary, terms of address explain like this: Term of address is the title telling the interrelation between one and the other, as well as represent the other’s status or career.
From ancient times to present, Chinese have paid much attention to addressing other due to China is a country with long history, and they respect the elders very much. In Chinese, the junior shouldn’t address the elders by their name directly but use the relative addresses, such as “爷爷”(grandpa),“奶奶”（grandma）,“爸爸”(dad),“妈妈”(mum),and so on. Among the peers, the younger should not call the elders by their full name directly but address them by using the relative addresses, such as “大哥”（elder brother）,“大姐”(elder sister),while the elder can call the younger by their name directly.
Compared with Chinese, terms of addressing in English are much simpler. They address all their father’s and mother’s brother “uncle”, all their father’s and mother’s sister “aunt” and call all their peers “cousin”. However, in Chinese, it is very complex. Such as “舅舅”(mother’s brother);“伯父”（father’s elder brother）;“叔父”(father’s younger brother);“姨父”(husband of mother’s sister);“姑父”(husband of father’s sister);“姨妈”(mother’s married sister);“姑妈”(father’s married sister);“堂兄弟”(sons of father’s brother)“堂姐妹”(daughters of father’s brother)“表兄弟”(sons of father’s sister or of mother’s sister or brother)“表姐妹”(daughters of father’s sister or of mother’s sister or brother). In English, they can call their names among peers, even between their parents. It is quite different in English and Chinese.
3.1.2 Different addressing forms in social occasion
In China's formal occasions, people prefer to use post call, such as: minister Wang, director Li, manager Zhang, etc. On one hand, to be called reflected the respect, on the other hand also reflected the status of the identity. However, in England, between colleagues, between superiors and their subordinates often call each other by name, generally not with the title of titles such as Manager Smith to show cordiality or shorten the distance between the two sides. Especially in recent years, the western social communication of the "address" seems to be going through a revolution, regardless of position and position is, people are more and more willing to use first names. It is an obvious attempt to rid society status difference of the representation of the strong desire, or means interpersonal relationship more equal. Even in the formal occasions, the name in front of the call also need not too complicated.
However, Chinese was influence by the traditional etiquette, in interpersonal occasion, Chinese pay great attention in its own position and the use of language. In Chinese, to each have a different under the role of language. As for the younger generation, the elders to subordinate supervisor present dominant language characteristic, has some of the mandatory, can need not appellation. The present is to be dominant and the respectful language style, before speaking with total respect in the title, otherwise, it is considered rude, don't give him face.
3.2 Greetings
In English, people are self-centered, personal interests sacrosanct, this criterion permeate all aspects of social life, so they can not accept these following questions which are very formal in China:
How old are you?（你多少岁了?）
Have you got married? (你结婚了吗?）
Where are you from?(你是什么地方人?）
Where are you going?(你到哪里去?）
How much is your income?(你挣多少钱?）
What’s your religion?(你的宗教信仰是什么?）
In Britain and the United States, the above questions will be considered to be very uncouth, take the liberty of rude behavior. Similar problems in the eyes of Chinese are the embodiment of the care or the two relations are not general. Chinese culture regards the family as its foundation, pay attention to the mutual interest between people, openly; emphasizes the social, collective spirit, and strengthens the constraints of society, groups of individuals. These two different cultures bring the two sides in communication obstacles.
When Chinese meet others, they always say:“Have a meal?”or“Where are you going?”But in England, you can not say that. If you do, they would think you want to invite him/her to go out to have a meal or inquire about his/her private affairs. And when they are waiting to hear the details, you talk about the other thing next, this behavior tends to make them feel baffled. They will wonder, if you do not invite me to have dinner, why do you ask me if I have had dinner yet?
British people greet each other, usually just say: hello, good morning, or how are you. They often say "hello" to meet the weather, health, traffic, sports and hobbies for topic. If you encounter an acquaintance, you need to say something more. You can talk about the weather, or about the coming exam. British and American people respect the privacy of each other very much. In generally, they do not ask others’ private affairs, let alone to ask someone’s age and salary.
Interpersonal relationships in China, emphasizing the role of the collective, people do not think there is any privacy. Westerners emphasize individualism, personal interests paramount, trying to get rid of the shackles of society, do not want to own things under exposure to a large crowd. Therefore, the Chinese people can openly ask other people's wages and marital status will not allow others to upset. British and American people put these attributable to the scope of personal privacy, not be free to ask, otherwise it is considered impolite, even if you are his close friends.
3.3 Polite language for inviting
Both in English and China, if someone invites you for dinner at their home, you must bring some gifts, but it is obviously different. First, Chinese people emphasis on the value of the gift. They think highly of the actual value of the gift, that the value of the gift proportional to the emotional expression; Westerners pay less attention to the practical value, so they usually send other a card, a bouquet of flowers or other small gifts. Secondly the gifts have different cultural meanings. Chinese give gifts to other care about the name of the gifts, and they avoid giving the gifts with ominous homophonic. such as can't send clock, because harmonics "song zhong"; can't send an umbrella, because harmonics “scattered " ; avoid sending towel, towel for parting gifts for ancient; avoid sending scissors, taboo " make a clean break