外文参考文献.doc

（一）
Building Types and Design
A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .
As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .
Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .
Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.
Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .
In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .
Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.
An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a
study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .
It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .
There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .

（一）
建筑类型、设计
建筑是息息相关,因为它提供了必要的空间中工作和生活。
　　作为分类使用它们,装备,建筑类型主要有两种:工业与民用建筑工业建筑被不同厂家生产或工业民用建筑是那些被人们对住宅、就业、教育和其他社会活动。
　　工业建筑的厂房可供加工制造各类等领域,采矿业、冶金、机械制造、化工、纺织行业。厂房可分为两种类型的并发。铝母铸造分厂和多层工业厂房建设一样。然而,民用建筑工业与民用建筑中使用的材料和不同的方式使用它们。
　　民用建筑分为两大类:住宅和公共建筑. 住宅建筑应该适合家庭生活每平应该包含至少三个必要的房间:一个客厅、一个厨房和卫生间依据建筑可以用在政治、经济、文化活动、行政工作及其他服务,如学校、写字楼、公园、医院、商店、车站、剧院、健身房、酒店、展览馆、浴水池,等等,他们有不同的功能,这反过来又需要不同类型的设计。
　　住房是对人类生活空间的基本功能,住房是提供庇护的元素,但今天的人们,他们需要更多的住房之类的家人搬到一个陌生的地方会知道可利用的住房满足其标准的安全、卫生、舒适的家庭也会问为什么之类的住房是粮食附近的商店、食品市场、学校、商店、图书馆、电影院、社区中心。
　　在1960中期是最重要的价值在住房是足够的空间内,大多数家庭优先之类的单户型住宅大约半英亩土地上的土地,这就提供了空间的休閒活动。在高度发达国家,许多家庭都喜欢住在很远的中心城区,即使工薪阶层不得不对他们的工作有一定的距离.quite大量的家庭喜欢乡下住房的郊区住房,因为他们的主要目标是要远离噪音、拥挤、混乱,通畅的公共交通已不再是一个决定性的因素,因为大多数工人的住房车开工作感兴趣,我们主要超前布置房间的大小和数目的卧室。
　　在任何一个建筑可以开始,计划必须吸引显示该建筑将会像什么,确切的地方去,一切如何去做。
　　很重要的一点是在建筑设计的布局,应提供房间中最大的方便与用途,他们的目的是在住宅,布局可考虑在三大类:“天”、“夜”、“服务”. 注意必须提供容易沟通,这些地区的“日”的房间一般包括餐厅、客厅、厨房,但是其他房间,如一个书房,可能会增加,可能会有一个大厅,起居室,通常是最大的,通常被用来作为餐厅,或厨房用餐,可能会有一个壁龛里,“夜间”间卧室中的组成,“服务”组成的厨房、浴室、贮藏室、电动液压抽水马桶,厨房和冷连服务一天的房间。
　　它也是必不可少的,考虑到问题的前景,从各个房间里最优先使用应该尽可能地朝南,却经常很难见到的最优工艺要求的环境和位置的道路。在解决这些复杂的问题,也是必要遵循当地城市法规所关心的公共设施、密度、高度的人口比例的绿色建筑,建筑空间的住处,线条,外观的新特性的关系,等等。
很少有规范化等工业厂房建筑虽然仍需遵守当地的城市法规,现代潮流走向光明,空气的厂房.通常钢筋混凝土或金属结构,可以得到一个“放弃”型脊屋顶,把窗户面向北,使自然采光无防太阳强光均匀分布。

（二）
Introduction to Civil Engineering Papers
Civil Engineering for the development of a key role, first as a material foundation for the civil engineering construction materials, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. Every time a new quality of building materials, civil engineering will be a leap-style development.
People can only rely on the early earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. China in the eleventh century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick and tile better than the mechanical properties of soil, materials, and easy to manufacture.
The brick and tile so that people began to appear widely, to a large number of housing construction and urban flood control project, and so on. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 to the 19th century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, human civilization has made a great contribution to the even was also widely used in the present.
The application of a large number of steel products is the second leap in civil engineering. Seventeen 1970s the use of pig iron, the early nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of steel.
From the beginning of the mid-nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cables. As a result of the need to adapt to the development of the steel structure have been flourishing. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, a framework, the structure of network, cable structures to promote the gradual emergence of the structure of Yan in the form of flowers.
From the brick building long-span structures, stone structures, a few meters of wood, steel structure to the development of tens of meters, a few hundred meters, until modern km above. So in the river, cross the bridge from shelves, on the ground since the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, even in the laying of underground railway, to create an unprecedented miracle.
In order to meet the needs of the development of steel works, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory came into being, and so on. Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, engineering practice and theoretical basis for both is a different place, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering.

During the nineteenth century, 20, made of Portland cement, concrete has come out. Concrete can aggregate materials, easy-to-concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited use. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the surge in steel production, with the emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite construction materials, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure and play their own advantages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, reinforced concrete is widely used in various fields of civil engineering.
From the beginning of the 1930s, there have been pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete structure of the crack resistance, rigidity and carrying capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Concrete buildings to bring about the emergence of new economic, aesthetic structure in the form of engineering, civil engineering so that a new construction technology and engineering design of the structure of the theory. This is another leap in the development of civil engineering.
The characteristics of Civil Engineering
A project to build the facilities in general to go through the investigation, design and construction in three stages, require the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro-geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, mechanical engineering, engineering design, building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy , And other disciplines and construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as computer and mechanical testing techniques. Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. With the progress in science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a broad connotation, the number of categories, the structure of complex integrated system.
Civil Engineering is accompanied by the development of human society developed. It works in the construction of facilities reflect the various historical periods of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technological development outlook, which civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness.
In ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and still water channel to meet the simple life and production. Later, in order to adapt to the war, production and dissemination of religious life, as well as the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces, temples and other buildings.
Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, the Great Wall of China, Dujiangyan, the Grand Canal, Zhaozhou Bridge, Yingxian Wooden Tower, the pyramids of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, colosseum amphitheater (Rome large animal fighting Field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on.
After the industrial revolution, especially in the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forward a new demand; On the other hand, all areas of society for the advancement of civil engineering to create good conditions. Thus this period of civil engineering has
been advanced by leaps and bounds. All over the world there have been large-scale modernization of industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridges, and large-diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grand Canal, the big dams, airports, port and marine engineering, etc. . For civil engineering continually modern human society to create a new physical environment, human society, modern civilization has become an important part.
Civil Engineering is a very practical subjects. In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, in particular, to draw lessons from the failure of developed. From the beginning of the 17th century, with Galileo and Newton as a pilot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, gradually formed the mechanical, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mechanics, civil engineering as the basis of theoretical subjects. This experience in civil engineering from the gradually developed into a science.
In the course of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. So far a number of projects dealing with the problem, is still very much rely on practical experience.
Civil Engineering Technology with the main reason for the development of engineering practice and not by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, for two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated and difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and analysis. For example, the foundation, tunnel and underground engineering and deformation of the state and its changes over time, still need to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. Second, only a new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems. For example, the construction of a high-rise buildings, high-rise tower and mast-span bridges, wind and earthquake engineering problems highlighted in order to develop this new theory and technology.
In the long-term civil engineering practice, it is not only building great attention to the arts, has made outstanding achievements; and other works, but also through the choice of different materials, such as th