2ComparativeTheory.pptx

Chapter TwoComparing Political SystemsComparative Politics Today,9/eAlmond,Powell,Dalton&StrmPearson Education,Inc.publishing as Longman 2008Why We Compare“Without comparisons to make,the mind Without comparisons to make,the mind does not know how to proceeddoes not know how to proceed.”.”-Tocqueville-Tocqueville Benefits of comparisonBenefits of comparison Methodological core of the scientific study of Methodological core of the scientific study of politicspolitics AristotleAristotle Contemporary political scientists Contemporary political scientists Try to explain differences between the processes and Try to explain differences between the processes and performances of political systemsperformances of political systemsHow We Compare First stage in the study of politics is First stage in the study of politics is description.description.To describe it we need a set of concepts that To describe it we need a set of concepts that are clearly defined and well understood.are clearly defined and well understood.Conceptual frameworkConceptual framework Easier this set of concepts is to understand and Easier this set of concepts is to understand and the more generally it can be applied,the more the more generally it can be applied,the more helpful it is to the study of politics.helpful it is to the study of politics.Political Systems:Environment and Interdependence To utilize a structural-functional systems framework To utilize a structural-functional systems framework to compare political systems we need to discuss to compare political systems we need to discuss three general concepts:three general concepts:System:suggests an object having interdependent parts,System:suggests an object having interdependent parts,acting within a setting or an environmentacting within a setting or an environment StructureStructure Function Function Political system:a set of institutions and agencies Political system:a set of institutions and agencies concerned with formulating and implementing the concerned with formulating and implementing the collective goals of a society or of groups within itcollective goals of a society or of groups within itPolitical Systems:Environment and Interdependence Governments are the policymaking parts of political systems.Governments are the policymaking parts of political systems.Decisions of governments are normally backed up by legitimate Decisions of governments are normally backed up by legitimate coercion;obedience may be compelled.coercion;obedience may be compelled.A political system exists in both an international environment A political system exists in both an international environment and a domestic environment.and a domestic environment.A system receives inputs from these environments.A system receives inputs from these environments.International International Exchanges among countries may vary in many ways:small to great.Exchanges among countries may vary in many ways:small to great.Interdependence has increased enormously in the last decades.Interdependence has increased enormously in the last decades.GlobalizationGlobalizationDomesticDomesticEconomic and social systemsEconomic and social systemsPolitical culture of its citizensPolitical culture of its citizensPolitical Systems:Structures and Functions Structures:parliaments,bureaucracies,administrative Structures:parliaments,bureaucracies,administrative agencies,and courtsagencies,and courts Structures perform functions,which in turn enable Structures perform functions,which in turn enable the government to formulate,implement,and the government to formulate,implement,and enforce its policies.enforce its policies.Policies reflect the goals;the agencies provide the means.Policies reflect the goals;the agencies provide the means.Six types of political structures:political parties,interest Six types of political structures:political parties,interest groups,legislatures,executives,bureaucracies,and courts.groups,legislatures,executives,bureaucracies,and courts.Formal organizations engaged in political activities.Formal organizations engaged in political activities.Some structures,such as ruling military councils or governing Some structures,such as ruling military councils or governing royal families,are found in only a few countries.royal families,are found in only a few countries.Similar structures may have very different functions across Similar structures may have very different functions across political systems.political systems.Ex:China and BritainEx:China and BritainPolitical Systems:Structures and Functions Process functionsProcess functions:distinctive activities necessary for policy to:distinctive activities necessary for policy to be made and implemented in any kind of political systembe made and implemented in any kind of political systemInterest articulationInterest articulationInvolves individuals and groups expressing their needs and demandsInvolves individuals and groups expressing their needs and demandsInterest aggregationInterest aggregationCombines different demands into policy proposals backed by significant Combines different demands into policy proposals backed by significant political resourcespolitical resourcesPolicymakingPolicymakingDecides which policy proposals are to become authoritative rulesDecides which policy proposals are to become authoritative rulesPolicy implementationPolicy implementationCarries out and enforces public policies;policy adjudication settles Carries out and enforces public policies;policy adjudication settles disputes about their applicationdisputes about their applicationPolitical Systems:Structures and Functions Three additional functions which are not directly involved in Three additional functions which are not directly involved in making and implementing public policy-socialization,making and implementing public policy-socialization,recruitment,and communication,are fundamentally important.recruitment,and communication,are fundamentally important.These are These are SYSTEMSYSTEM functions.functions.They determine whether or not the system will be maintained or They determine whether or not the system will be maintained or changed.changed.Political socialization:involves families,schools,communications media,Political socialization:involves families,schools,communications media,churches,and all the various political structures that develop,reinforce churches,and all the various political structures that develop,reinforce and transform the political culture,the attitudes of political significance and transform the political culture,the attitudes of political significance in the societyin the societyPolitical recruitment:refers to the selection of people for political Political recruitment:refers to the selection of people for political activity and government officesactivity and government officesPolitical communication:refers to the flow of information through the Political communication:refers to the flow of information through the society and through the various structures that make up the political society and through the various structures that make up the political systemsystemPolitical Systems:Structures and Functions Outputs=the implementations of the political process.Outputs=the implementations of the political process.Substantive impacts on the society,the economy,and the Substantive impacts on the society,the economy,and the cultureculture Regulation of behavior;extraction of resources;distribution of Regulation of behavior;extraction of resources;distribution of benefits and servicesbenefits and services Reflect the way way the policies interact with the domestic and Reflect the way way the policies interact with the domestic and international environmentsinternational environments Example of structures and functions in Russia before Example of structures and functions in Russia before and after the breakdown of communist rule in the and after the breakdown of communist rule in the Soviet UnionSoviet Union Approach-structural functional comparisonApproach-structural functional comparisonAllows us to examine how the same functions are performed in Allows us to examine how the same functions are performed in different countries,or in the same country at two different points different countries,or in the same country at two different points in timein timePolitical Systems:Structures and Functions Process functions are performed by political Process functions are performed by political structures.structures.The structural-functional approach stresses two The structural-functional approach stresses two points:points:In different countries,the same structure may perform In different countries,the same structure may perform different functions.different functions.While a particular institution may have a special relationship While a particular institution may have a special relationship to a particular function,institutions often do not have a to a particular function,institutions often do not have a monopoly on any one function.monopoly on any one function.Ex:Presidents and governors may share in the policy-making Ex:Presidents and governors may share in the policy-making function(veto powers),as do the higher courts(judicial function(veto powers),as do the higher courts(judicial review).review).The Policy Level:Performance,Outcome,and EvaluationImportant question:What do the differences in structure and function Important question:What do the differences in structure and function do for the interests,needs,and aspirations of people?do for the interests,needs,and aspirations of people?This is the This is the policy levelpolicy level of the political system.of the political system.We call the outputs of a political system-its extractions,distributions,We call the outputs of a political system-its extractions,distributions,regulations,and symbolic acts-its policy performance.regulations,and symbolic acts-its policy performance.Ex:Input:American spending on education;more than any other Ex:Input:American spending on education;more than any other people in the world.Output:U.S.children perform less well in subjects people in the world.Output:U.S.children perform less well in subjects such as mathematics than do children in some other countries that such as mathematics than do children in some other countries that spend substantially less.spend substantially less.Outcome of public policy is never wholly in the hands of the people and Outcome of public policy is never wholly in the hands of the people and their leaders.their leaders.Other forces:conditions in the internal environment,conditions in the larger Other forces:conditions in the internal environment,conditions in the larger external world,and simple chance may frustrate the most thoughtfully external world,and simple chance may frustrate the most thoughtfully crafted programs and planscrafted programs and plansEvaluationEvaluationAssessing performance and outcomesAssessing performance and outcomesHow We Explain Once we describe politics with the help of a Once we describe politics with the help of a conceptual framework,we then must explain it.conceptual framework,we then must explain it.Identifying the relationships between political phenomenaIdentifying the relationships between political phenomena Ideally we want to put many political relationships in causal Ideally we want to put many political relationships in causal terms.terms.Theories are statements about causal relationships Theories are statements about causal relationships between general classes of events.between general classes of events.Ex:What causes democracy,war,or welfare policies?Ex:What causes democracy,war,or welfare policies?Scientific theories are always tentative;always subject to Scientific theories are always tentative;always subject to modification or falsification as our knowledge improves.modification or falsification as our knowledge improves.Theories need to be testable.Theories need to be testable.Good theory holds up after many trials.Good theory holds up after many trials.How We Explain Studies:Studies:Large“n”/statistical and small“n”/case studiesLarge“n”/statistical and small“n”/case studiesVariables:the features on which our cases differVariables:the features on which our cases differStatistical analysis enables us to consider possible alternative Statistical analysis enables us to consider possible alternative causes at the same time,accepting some and rejecting others.causes at the same time,accepting some and rejecting others.Case studies permit us to go deeply into a case.Case studies permit us to go deeply into a case.These methods are complementary.These methods are complementary.Large“n”statistical studies allow us to be more certain and precise Large“n”statistical studies allow us to be more certain and precise in our explanations.in our explanations.Case studies provide depth-encourage us to formulate insightful Case studies provide depth-encourage us to formulate insightful hypotheses for statistical testing;allow us to trace the nature of hypotheses for statistical testing;allow us to trace the nature of cause-and-effect relations better than large“n”studies.cause-and-effect relations better than large“n”studies.How We Explain Comparative analysis is a powerful and versatile tool.Comparative analysis is a powerful and versatile tool.Enhances our ability to:Enhances our ability to:Describe and understand political processes and change in a Describe and understand political processes and change in a country by offering concepts and reference points from a country by offering concepts and reference points from a broader perspectivebroader perspective Also stimulates us to form general theories of political Also stimulates us to form general theories of political relationshipsrelationships Encourages and enables us to test our political theories by Encourages and enables us to test our political theories by confronting them with the experience of many institutions confronting them with the experience of many institutions and settingsand settings