跨文化交际-.ppt

1 1Cultural Shock or Acculturation5Historical development2Aspects of Intercultural communicationAspects of Intercultural communication 3Cross-cultural Communicative competence 4Basic concepts1ContentsCases6Cross-cultural communication2 2Basic conceptsWhat is culture?What is communication?What is Cross-cultural communication?3 3What is Communication?It comes from the Latin word“communicare”,it means to give or to exchange.Now,the most common meaning of“communication”is to give or exchange information or ideas.Communication is our ability to share our ideas and feelings.(the basis of all human contact)Communication is a dynamic,systematic process in which meanings are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols.(Griffin,2006:54)4 4交际传理交通通信传播沟通交流CommunicationVarious Chinese Translations of CommunicationCommunication5 5Types of Communicationhuman communication(人类交际）animal communication(动物交际）human-animal communication（人类与动物的交际）human-machine communication（人机交际）machine-to-machine communication（机器交际）6 6Linear Model of CommunicationSenderReceiverChannel(message)encodingdecodingnoiseIs this an effective model of communication?Mode of Communication大家有疑问的，可以询问和交流大家有疑问的，可以询问和交流可以互相讨论下，但要小声点可以互相讨论下，但要小声点可以互相讨论下，但要小声点可以互相讨论下，但要小声点7 78 8Interactive Model of CommunicationSenderReceiverSenderReceiverencodingdecodingnoiseFeedback is essential to good communicationdecodingencodingmessage/channelmessage/channel9 9Elements of communicationContext(location,time,light,temperature,seating arrangements)Participants(relationship,gender,culture)Messages(meanings,symbols,encoding and decoding)Channels(sound,sight,smell,taste,touch)Noise(external noise,internal noise,semantic noise)Feedback(Griffin,2006:94)1010Characteristics of communication1)Communication is dynamic2)Communication is interactive3)Communication is irreversible4)Communication takes place in both a physical and social context.(Griffin,2006)1111What is Cross-cultural Communication?Cross-cultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.Cross-cultural communication refers to any communication between two members of any cultural communities.(Samovar and Porter,2004:47)1212Cross-cultural Communication Vs Intercultural Communication Cross-cultural communication the similarities and differences in value orientations,affective dispositions,communicative styles etc.(psychological process)Intercultural communication the penetration by a member of one culture into another culture(practical significance)In Chinese:“跨文化交际学”或“跨文化交流学”1313Historical developmentThe establishment of the Foreign Service Institute(1940s-50s);The body of work by anthropologist Edward T.Hall(1950s);The launching of cross-cultural organizations(1970s-80s);The increase of cross-cultural coursework in colleges and universities(1970s-80s);The growth of a body of work in cross-cultural communication theory and research(1980s-present)(Dijk,1998:145)1414Interdisciplinary orientationThese fields include:anthropologycultural studies psychology communication 1515Classical Works in the FieldIn 1940,Franz Boas,Race,Language and Culture.In 1957,firstly“Cross cultural studies”by Robert Lado in his Linguistic Across Cultures(跨文化语言学）.He discussed the cultural comparison in three aspects:form,meaning and distribution(顾嘉祖，4）.In 1959,the Silent Language by Edward T.Hall initiated the cross-cultural studies.R.Oliver,1962，Culture and communicationA.G.Smith,1966,Culture and communicationIn 1970s,ICA(International Communication Association)accepted Cross-cultural Communication as a branch discipline.as a discipline)Journals:International and Intercultural Journal of Intercultural Relations.1616A Monumental FigureEdward Twitchell Hall,(1914 2009),American anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher.Hall introduced a number of new concepts,including proxemics,polychronic and monochronic time,and high and low context cultures.The Silent Language(1959)The Hidden Dimension(1966)Beyond Culture(1976)1717Proxemics(人际距离学）It refers to a description of how people behave and react in different types of culturally-defined personal space.Four categories of distance include:Friendsand relativessocial distancepublic distance1818Time systems(Hall,1976)Monochronic Time(M-Time)Polychronic Time(P-Time)美国人类学家霍尔（美国人类学家霍尔（Edward Hall）在）在（Beyond Culture）一书中首次区分了）一书中首次区分了两种不同的时间观念两种不同的时间观念,即即“单向计时制单向计时制”（monochronic time）和）和“多向计时多向计时制制”（polychronic time)1919Monochronic Time(M-Time)It schedules one event at a time.In these cultures time is perceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future.e.g.American “单向计时制重视日程安排、阶段时间和准时”,认为“时间是线性的、可分割的，就象一条道路或带子向前伸展到未来，向后延伸到过去”。美国人特别强调把时间分割成不同的时段来安排活动,强调守时,严格按照日程一次做一件事情（do one thing at a time）2020Polychronic Time(P-Time)P-time schedules several activities at the same time.It is more flexible and more humanistic.People from P-time system emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules.They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and sometimes break them(Hall,1976:73).e.g.Chinese,Latin American,Arab and most Asian cultures 2121Aspects of Cross-cultural CommunicationHigh and Low Context Cultures Verb and Non Verbal Communication 2222High and Low context culturesThe idea of context in culture was an idea put forth by an anthropologist by the name of Edward T Hall.Hall broke up culture into two main groups:High and Low context cultures.He referred to context as the stimuli,environment or ambiance surrounding the environment.2323High-context Culture:In high-context messages,meaning is not necessarily contained in words.Information is provided through gestures,the use of space,and even silence.Meaning is also conveyed through status(age,sex,education,family background,title,and affiliation)(Hall,1959:97).High-Context cultures assume the individual is knowledgeable about the subject and has to be given very little background information.High-context cultures include Chinese,Japanese,Chinese,Japanese,Middle EasternersMiddle Easterners,etc.2424Low-context Culture:In low-context messages,the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code.low-context cultures assume that the individuals know very little about what they are being told,and therefore must be given a lot of background information.Low-context cultures include English,North American,German,etc.2525 verbalnon-verballanguageothersbody languageothersspeakingwritingsoundspoken languagewritten languageinformalformalparalinguisticssign language gesturesflag,codes human communicationDiagram of human communication2626Verbal CommunicationParalanguage(伴随语言伴随语言):refers to voice characteristics and vocal qualities.Paralinguistics is the study of such aspects of speech as tone,volume,pitch and tempo,pause and the like which are together with verbal information.Our voice may be one of the most informative elements in building up our images.2727(1)Pitch Pitch decides hesitation or emphasis.When one is excited,his/her voice would be high in pitch,quick in rate,and there will be no pauses between sentences;When one is sad or depressed,his/her voice traits would surely be the opposite.2828(2)Volume Control The English always speak in lower voice than Chinese when they make speech or a lecture,or talking with each other,or phoning.But Chinese often speak in loud voice in the aforesaid occasions.American are more skilled in regulating their voice volume and use very many different volume levels depending on the size of the audience and the physical environment.2929(3)Silence Silence can be longer between friends or intimates than the strangers who have to converse.Chinese pay more attention to the function of silence in the talking,and think that the pauses and silence have rich meanings.Silence may have many possible meanings:agreement-disagreement,thoughtful-ignorance,consideration-inconsideration,secrecy,coldness,submission,boredom and so on.3030Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal CommunicationNonverbal codes refer to communicative messages which are not in word form.More than 55%messages are communicated nonverbally!3131DefinitionNonverbal communication involves all nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that is generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that has potential message value for the source or receiver.(Samovar and Porter,2004)3232Where are they from?muumuujeans3333KimonoSari(Saree)3434General Appearance and DressConcern with how one appears is universal.We make inferences(often faulty)about anothers“intelligence,gender,age,approachability,financial well-being,class,tastes,values,and cultural background”from attractiveness,dress,and personal appearance.3535Body LanguageBody language refers to all nonverbal codes which are associated with body movements.Body language includes gestures,head movements,facial expressions,eye behaviors,postures and other displays that can be used to communicate.3636GesturesGestures are an important component of non-verbal communication.It must be emphasized that gestures vary in meaning from culture to culture.Non-verbal Communication 3737 1.the ring gesture:In America,it means OK.Its great.In Japan it means money;In France it means zero or worthless;In Tunisia突尼斯 “Ill kill you.”38382.the single finger beckon:In America it simply means:come here.In Yugoslavia and Malaysia it is only used for beckoning animals.In Indonesia and Australia it is used for beckoning prostitutes.39393.The thumbs-up sign:In Britain it means OK and is also used as a sign for hitch-hiking.In Greece it is an insult.In Chinese it means OK or praising.4040Cross-cultural Communicative CompetenceIntegration of communicative competence and cultural competence.4141Communicative Competence Grammatical Competencemastering the linguistic code of a language(sentence level)Discourse Competence forming a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances.(inter-sentential relationships)4242Sociolinguistic Competenceknowledge of the socio-cultural rules(appropriateness of utterances)Strategic Competenceverbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to insufficient competence.4343Cultural CompetenceAwareness of ones own cultural worldview;Attitude towards cultural differences;Knowledge of different cultural practices and worldviews;cross-cultural skills.4444 Ethnocentrism Stereotyping Prejudice Discrimination Racism Lack of Knowledge,Motivation,&Skill Obstacles to Cross-cultural Competence Within People 4545EthnocentrismIt is the tendency to use the categories of ones own culture to evaluate the actions of others,or the belief that ones culture is primary to all explanations of reality.If people believe that their cultural is the only true culture,they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors.4646StereotypingStereotypes are a form of generalization about some group of people,or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people.It is found in nearly every intercultural situation.The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.4747 They are barriers to intercultural communication.Stereotypes fail to specify individual characteristics.They assume that all members of a group have exactly the same traits.They are oversimplified,over generalized,and/or exaggerated.They are based on half-truths,distortions,and often untrue premises;but often taken as“truth”.4848In the past:American stereotype on Japanese:Fuji Mountain,Sakura,GeishaJapanese stereotype on Americans:chewing gum At present:American stereotype on Japanese:Economic hole,workaholicJapanese stereotype on Americans:the white foreigners speaking English4949PrejudiceIt refers to negative attitudes towards other people that are based on faulty and inflexible stereotypes.It is an unfair,biased,or intolerant attitude towards another group of people.“Those Germans did it once,so I can never trust any of them ever again.”“Dont pay the Mexicans very much.They dont have any education and will work for almost nothing.”5050DiscriminationIt refers to the behavioral manifestations of the prejudice,it can be thought of as prejudice“in action”.Racism5151Lack of Knowledge,Motivation&SkillTo overcome all the previous obstacles,it requires a commitment both to learning about other cultures and to understand ones own.A willingness to explore various cultural experiences without prejudgment is necessary.An ability to behave appropriately and effectively with culturally different others without invoking prejudice and stereotyped assumptions.5252Form of Address Greeting Initiating Conversation and Conversation Topic Visiting PartingCultural shock or Acculturation when east meets west5353Individualistic and Collectivist Culture Individualistic Culture(liberalism):individuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from,rather than similar to other.People are encouraged to display self-confidence and assertiveness,disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings.Collectivist culture(Confucianism):places little value on individual identity and great value on group identity.Going ones own way is not valued;uniformity and conformity are stressed.5454A case in pointAuthorial identity in academic writingIndividualistic VS.Collectivistic Visible invisible the use of I,We etc.5555IndividualismCollectivismI cultureWE cultureopen discussion of disagreement are valued forms of talkopenly speaking ones mind appears distastefulseek the notice of others;affirm their uniquenessopen expression risks faceguarding privacy;valuing freedom to do and think whatever they choosethe right to privacy in the sense of freedom is not recognizedlive life guided only by principles such as equality and noninterferenceones business is also the business of the group;friends should be concerned with each others personal matters5656ChineseEnglishFormal Relationship/SituationNeutral Relationship/SituationClose Relationship/SituationForm of AddressSurname+Title Title+SurnameSurname+TitleTitle+SurnameGiven NameGiven NameGiven Name5757FocusThe use of persons title:In China:Surname+Title:张局长张局长,李经理李经理,严校长严校长In America:only a few occupations or titles:Doctor,Professor Nurse,Judge,Mayor,The ranks in the armed force:CaptainUsage:Singly/+surname5858informal situationEngland people call each other by first nameemployers employeesin less formal settingsPeople usually use first name,even they meet for the first time,regardless of age and statusin formal situationfirst names are less likely to be usedin many officesuse of the first name among colleagues is customary;use the title plus last name would be taken as an open declaration of dislike someone.the most frequent used titlesMr.