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Vocabulary building
Affixes and roots
Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is common in academic English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (like dislike), whereas suffixes are added to the end of the base (active activate). Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word, but suffixes usually do change the class of the word.
The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. By far the most common affix in academic English is -ise.
Verbs
e.g. prefix + verb verb
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
re-
again or back
restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis-
reverses the meaning of the verb
disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over-
too much
overbook, oversleep, overwork
un-
reverses the meaning of the verb
unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis-
badly or wrongly
mislead, misinform, misidentify
out-
more or better than others
outperform, outbid
be-
make or cause
befriend, belittle
co-
together
co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de-
do the opposite of
devalue, deselect
fore-
earlier, before
foreclose, foresee
inter-
between
interact, intermix, interface
pre-
before
pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub-
under/below
subcontract, subdivide
trans-
across, over
transform, transcribe, transplant
under-
not enough
underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop
Exercise
^
e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".
Suffix
Example
-ise
stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate
differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy
classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en
awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
Exercise
^
Nouns
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are: co- and sub-. The most common suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. By far the most common noun affix in academic English is -tion.
e.g. prefix + noun noun
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
anti-
against
anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
auto-
self
autobiography, automobile
bi-
two
bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism
co-
joint
co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant
counter-
against
counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal
dis-
the converse of
discomfort, dislike
ex-
former
ex-chairman, ex-hunter
hyper-
extreme
hyperinflation, hypersurface
in-
the converse of
inattention, incoherence, incompatibility
in-
inside
inpatient,
inter-
between
interaction, inter-change, interference
kilo-
thousand
kilobyte
mal-
bad
malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition
mega-
million
megabyte
mis-
wrong
misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement
mini-
small
mini-publication, mini-theory
mono-
one
monosyllable, monograph, monogamy
neo-
new
neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism
out-
separate
outbuilding,
poly-
many
polysyllable
pseudo-
false
pseudo-expert
re-
again
re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination
semi-
half
semicircle, semi-darkness
sub-
below
subset, subdivision
super-
more than, above
superset, superimposition, superpowers
sur-
over and above
surtax
tele-
distant
telecommunications,
tri-
three
tripartism
ultra-
beyond
ultrasound
under-
below, too little
underpayment, under-development, undergraduate
vice-
deputy
vice-president
Exercise
^
e.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A) noun
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-tion
-sion
action/instance of V-ing
alteration, demonstration
expansion, inclusion, admission
-er
person who V-s
something used for V-ing
advertiser, driver
computer, silencer
-ment
action/instance of V-ing
development, punishment, unemployment
-ant
-ent
person who V-s
assistant, consultant
student
-age
action/result of V
breakage, wastage, package
-al
action/result of V
denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
-ence
-ance
action/result of V
preference, dependence, interference
attendance, acceptance, endurance
-ery/-ry
action/instance of V-ing
place of V-ing
bribery, robbery, misery
refinery, bakery
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-er
person concerned with N
astronomer, geographer
-ism
doctrine of N
Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship
state of being N
friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age
collection of N
baggage, plumage
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-ity
state or quality of being A
ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
-ness
state or quality of being A
darkness, preparedness, consciousness
-cy
state or quality of being A
urgency, efficiency, frequency
Word Formation: Verbs 1
1
In the second draft of this letter Marx says: "the archaic formation of society reveals a number of different types which __________ different and successive epochs." (character)
2
They __________ other flowers within the same fig. (pollen)
3
Some more theologically articulate members of the provisional movement __________ violence on traditional Roman catholic ethical grounds, the theory of the just war against the unjust oppressor. (just)
4
To __________ all reckless killings as murder might be too broad, but the point remains that some reckless killings may be thought no less heinous than intentional killings. (class)
5
There remained a distinctive philosophy of liberalism which could __________ the Liberals from other political parties. (differ)
6
To __________ a rather complex historical phenomenon, it can be said that the present political division between Fianna Fail and Fine Gael originates in positions taken by opponents in that war. (simple)
7
It seems probable that some doctors carry out mercy killings by administering large doses of pain-killing drugs which __________ life significantly, and the law may well protect them from liability. (short)
8
The only miracle left in the nuclear dream is that more people have not __________ to the fact that nuclear power is economically - and increasingly, in that it takes much-needed funds away from renewables and efficiency - ethically, redundant. (wake)
9
Berkeley's ideas were __________ early. (formula)
10
In a black leather notebook __________ with a metal clasp, he wrote: Oswestry July 18th 1829... (fast)
11
Frederick's reforms, however, __________ a major flaw in the progressive infatuation with scientific management. (example)
12
The society may be __________ by such dealings, and experienced through them. (symbol)
13
This conversion of sound symbols in time to __________ symbols in space was the greatest single step in the quest for permanence. (visual)
Word Formation: Verbs 2
1
Nevertheless, this peculiar combination had a long life and was destined to __________ in the Middle Ages. (appear)
2
He became a porter, was __________, often not paid at all, but did not complain. (pay)
3
A man's useless tuxedo could be __________ into a woman's smart town suit. (form)
4
There is nothing harmful or threatening in institutionalizing, and thereby recognizing, a relationship which some fear, many object to, and most still __________. (understand)
5
Of themselves, of course, the rules are normative, and their validity is thus __________ by issues of fact. (affect)
6
Eduardo Duhalde, Argentina's caretaker president, today said that he would __________ the peso as he prepared to unveil a high-risk plan to end the country's economic turmoil. (value)
7
The Maya priests discovered, however, that they had slightly __________ the average synodic period of Venus. (estimate)
8
In essence, the systems involve diffusing chemicals that __________ with one another. (act)
9
The concept of entities that appear for only an instant and then __________ was used by Buddhists to prove that all is merely appearance. (appear)
10
In Garner's case the formal elements often go unnoticed because they are __________ and made almost invisible by the emotional power and urgency of the story. (merge)
Word Formation: Nouns 1
1
There he delegated elementary instruction to an __________, while he took advanced students. (assist)
2
This was, of course, an open invitation to trivial forms of corruption and __________ (bribe)
3
We can expect such systems to show varying degrees of __________ to acclimatise. (able)
4
Hitler's popular standing was undiminished, and confidence in his __________ among the great majority of the population remaoned unbroken. (leader)
5
We must remember that there may be important ways in which brains and existing __________ work on different principles. (compute)
6
Croquis parisiens points up the __________ of the context in which both writer and artist worked. (similar)
7
Any technical term used here, whether from __________ or anthropology, is explained in the body of the text, and the index will enable the reader to refer back to these explanation. (Marx)
8
The best cure in such a case is an __________ of the law by statute. (alter)
9
That cost is not difficult to justify where capital __________ is the penalty for first-degree murder. (punish)
10
At all times of the year the periods of daylight and __________ were each divided into twelve hours. (dark)
Word Formations: Nouns 2
1
Sections of the population have also combined their own popular nationalism and religion with aspects of the clerical interpretation already invested in the law, particularly in the __________ movement of the early 1980s. (abortion)
2
So much detail is now accumulating on so wide a range of taxonomic groups that a __________ can be erected for virtually every one of them. (theory)
3
Others, however, will develop a chronic and progressive __________ of the liver that may lead to total liver failure. (function)
4
Early in the nineteenth century additional judges, called __________, were appointed. (Chancellor)
5
The audience at the Odeon theatre shouted down the play for its "__________", and conservative critics and the public found the dance-hall episode in particular to be repugnant in its poor taste. (realism)
6
We need to examine, therefore, whether procedures known to influence associative strength in orthodox conditioning will also influence the acquisition of __________ during stimulus exposure. (attention)
7
Drugs which are rapidly inactivated have advantages, because the risk of __________ is minimized and there are no cumulative effects. (dosage)
8
They release the parties from the duty of living together on grounds of cruelty or __________. (conduct)
Word Formation: Adjectives 1
1
Naturalistic subjects interested Bernard, too, though they never became __________ to his art as they did to Lautrec's. (centre)
2
Clearly, the difference between reckless driving and __________ driving is one of degree. (care)
3
It seems plausible to suppose that unless a person enjoys __________ power in a society he does not possess legitimate political authority over that society. (effect)
4
He not only uses __________ images to achieve rhythm but, even more subtly, uses __________ ideas for the same purpose. (repeat)
5
We talk of presumptions in three __________ senses. (differ)
6
The integral involves two __________ functions. (continue)
7
It is remarkable that a cell as overtly dull and __________ as the fertilized egg can give rise to such varied and complex forms. (structure)
8
One can think of the differences of being handsome, __________, or just ordinary, in terms of small differences in the growth programme for each region. (beauty)
9
The politician is __________ to Parliament and the public. (account)
10
This is a book about __________ freedom. (politics)
Word Formation: Adjectives 2
1
As running or walking any distance becomes __________, it is avoided more and more. (comfortable)
2
__________ resources that took aeons to constitute are squandered in an instant, according to the "laws" of supply and demand. (replaceable)
3
You will be faced here with a great temptation to set goals for fast weight loss that will prove difficult or __________ for you to achieve. (possible)
4
Drugs which are rapidly inactivated have advantages, because the risk of overdosage is minimized and there are no cumulative effects. But they are also __________, because frequent doses must be given to maintain a continuous effect. (convenient)
5
At the same time it was made __________ for anyone who was not fully medically qualified and registered to treat these diseases. (legal)
6
Garner shows how the worker, who is forced to be ___________, then feels free in turn to cheat his employer. (honest)
7
You will probably be less able to cope with the pressures of life; the ability to cope and be relaxed does not come easily to a body that indulges in too little physical activity and is __________. (healthy)
8
Even in the university centres, perhaps only 50 per cent of cases are notified, while reporting from private practitioners is __________. (existent)
Economy/Economic/Economical...
1
I got an __________ flight to Spain for £99 rerturn.
2
What has gone wrong with the __________ system during the last ten years?
3
You should use your resources __________.
4
__________ is the oldest of the social sciences.
5
A country's __________ is the wealth it gets from business and industry.
6
She though herself as an __________ housewife.
7
This country has an industrial __________.
8
He studied __________ at Harvard University.
9
The house has a very __________ heating system so bills are not a big problem.
10
We have to keep fares high enough to make it __________ for the service to continue.
11
I need $1000 for my vacation so I'm going to have to __________.
12
It is not always __________ for buses to run on Sundays.
13
The government's managemnet of the __________ has been severely criticised.
14
Many people believe that inflation leads to __________ decline.
15
Larger tubes of toothpaste are more __________.
16
We're spending too much money - we must __________.
17
A market __________ is one in which the price of goods is fixed according to both cost and demand.
18
A small car is more __________ than a large one.
19
This courier service could be most ____________ operated.
20
There has been a slow down in __________ activity recently.
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