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单击以编辑母版标题样式,单击以编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,*,Chap 2:,Chemical Kinetics,For a chemical reaction,:,A+B,C,1.,Can it react?-Probability,可能性,2.,If so,how the reaction rate,?-,Practicability,现实性,3.,If so,how far the reaction going?,4.,If so,how the energy changing?,1,、,3,、,4,属于化学热力学问题,含有理论指导意义。,例:稀有气体(,Nobel Gas),反应性,2,属于化学动力学问题,含有实际应用意义。,例:人造金刚石(,Synthetic Diamond).,2025/5/19 周一,1/68,化学动力学任务(,Task):,研究化学反应速率-,study reaction rates,控制化学反应速率方法-,method to control rates,研究化学反应机理-,study the reaction mechanism,化学反应介绍,(Introduction),均相反应,(homogeneous),:单一相中反应;,多相反应,(polyphase or heterogeneous),:相界面上进行反应。,影响反应速率原因:接触面积,非浓度。,增大接触面积:研磨(,s-s、s-g)、,搅拌(,s-l、l-l),Ex.,催化剂多孔性分布硅藻土。,2025/5/19 周一,2/68,Main contents,Chemical reaction rate(,化学反应速率,),:,average rate,instantaneous rate,reaction progress,反应进度,Factor effected on the reaction rate,concentration,:速率方程,、,反应级数、速率常数(,k)、,基元反应、质量作用定律、,temperature,:速率常数,k,与温度关系,-,阿仑尼乌斯公式,反应速率理论介绍,*-自学为主,碰撞理论,(,collision theory),过渡态理论,(transient state theory),:,活化能,(activation energy),、,催化剂,(,Catalyst),催化剂对反应速率影响,2025/5/19 周一,3/68,2.1,Chemical reaction rate,1.化学反应速率(,v),Rate of change of concentration with time.,(,化学反应速率可用反应物或生成物浓度随时间改变率表示,),2 Fe,3+,(aq)+Sn,2+,2 Fe,2+,(aq)+Sn,4+,(aq),t=0 0.0030M 0.0015M 0 0,t=38.5s 0.0020M 0.0010M 0.0010 M 0.0005M,c,-0.0010M -0.0005M 0.0010 M 0.0005M,Rate of formation of Fe,2+,Rate of disappearance of Sn,2+,2025/5/19 周一,4/68,数学表示式,(mathematic representation):,For any reaction:,AB,Unit,单位:,moldm,-3,(or L,-1,)s,-1,(,时间:,s,min,hr,d,a.),平均速率,Average rate,(,v),-不一样时间段平均速率不一样;,瞬时速率,Instant rate(v),-,某一时刻时反应速率。,*,以反应物浓度降低或生成物浓度增大表示时符号不一样;,*,用不一样物质浓度改变表示反应速率使不一样。例:,N,2,(g)+3H,2,(g)=2NH,3,(g)。,不统一,!?,2025/5/19 周一,5/68,General reaction,:,为了使反应速率有一致确实定值,现行国际单位制提议用,B,物质化学计量数,B,去除,dc,B,/dt,。,When the system volume is constant,,,Definition of reaction rate,:反应进度,随时间改变率。,aA +dD gG +hH,2.,反应进度,(,),与,reaction rate,(,v,),2025/5/19 周一,6/68,化学计量数与反应进度(补充),化学计量数(,Stoichiometric number),For chemical equation:,OVR.,If let,then,称,B,为化学计量式中,B,计量数,。,For reactant,B,is negative,;,product,B,is positive,2025/5/19 周一,7/68,Ex.Photosynthesis reaction,若将反应式写为,化学计量数与化学计量式相关,!,2025/5/19 周一,8/68,Reaction progress,对于化学计量方程式,若定义,称,为反应进度,表示物质改变量除以对应化学计量系数,,SI,单位:,mol。,When start,,,0,=0,,then,For the product:,2025/5/19 周一,9/68,反应进度,-表示一个反应进行程度,量纲:,mol,物理意义:=1,mol,指按化学计量方程式进行一个单位反应。,Note:,反应进度,表示与计量方程式写法相关。,2.0 7.0 2.0 (,mol),3.0 10.0 0 (,mol),2025/5/19 周一,10/68,3.0 10.0 0 0,2.0 7.0 2.0,1.5 5.5 3.0,Ex.,2025/5/19 周一,11/68,几点说明:,0 0 0 0 0,-6 -6 1 6 1,-12 -12 2 12 2,-3 -3 1/2 3 1/2,*反应进度与反应式中组分无关,。,2025/5/19 周一,12/68,Given,A B C D,-6 -6 1 6,-1 -1 1/6 1,*反应进度相同,反应方程式不一样,各组分物质量改变不一样。,2025/5/19 周一,13/68,Practice 1,According to the reaction below,when NO is reacting at the rate of 0.10 mol L,-1,s,-1,at what rate is O,2,reacting?,2NO(g)+O,2,(g)=2NO(g),A.0.30 mol,L,-1,s,-1,B.0.20 mol,L,-1,s,-1,C.0.050 mol,L,-1,s,-1,D.0.10 mol,L,-1,s,-1,2025/5/19 周一,14/68,The decomposition of N,2,O,5,proceeds according to the equation:,2N,2,O,5,(g),4NO,2,(g)+O,2,(g),If the rate of decomposition of at a particular in a reaction vessel is 4.21,1,0,-7,mol,dm,-3,s,-1,what is the rate of appearance of(a)NO,2,;(b)O,2,?,Practice 2,Answers:,(a)8.4,1,0-7mol,dm,-3,s,-1,;,(b)2.1,1,0-7mol,dm,-3,s,-1,2025/5/19 周一,15/68,2.,2 Reaction rate and Concentration,一:速率方程和速率常数(,k),速率方程,(rate equation),:把反应物浓度和反应速率联络起来数学表示式。,aA+bB+,gG+hH+,Rate of reaction v=k A,m,B,n,.,k,is,rate constant,(unit,?,),m,n,are,Order of Reaction,(,反应级数,),Generally,m,a,n,b,。,E,xception,:,简单反应(基元反应),,依据,质量作用定律,(.swf),可写出数学表示式。,2025/5/19 周一,16/68,Notes,:,反应速率常数,(,rate constant,k,),物理意义:,the reaction rate at the unit concentration(,单位浓度时反应速率,),;,k,只取决于反应,本性,(,Ea,,活化能,),和,温度,,,k,是温度函数,,k,与浓度无关。,k,单位(量纲)随速率方程改变。,(mol,L,-1,),1-m-n-,s,-1,?,How it to be deduced?,k,普通由试验测得。只有,基元反应,才能够直接写出。,2025/5/19 周一,17/68,二:,基元反应与非基元反应,Elementary Steps,基元反应,:,反应物分子在有效碰撞中,经过一次化学改变,(one-step),就能转化为产物反应。,The individual steps that constitute a reaction mechanism are referred to as elementary steps.,由一个基元反应组成化学反应又称,简单反应。,只有,基元反应,才可,依据,质量作用定律,直接写出速率方程式,*质量作用定律:,恒温下,基元反应反应速度与各反应物浓度系数次方乘积成正比。,aA+bB,gG+hH,v=k A,a,B,b,2025/5/19 周一,18/68,非基元反应速率方程式,不能依据反应式写出其速率方程,必须依据试验测定结果由反应历程推出,并验证,;,复杂非基元反应,分成若干个基元反应 反应最慢一步作为,速控步骤,(,Rate Determining Step,),。,最慢一个反应控制了该复杂反应反应速率。,非基元反应(,复杂反应,),:,反应物分子需经,几步反应,(multi-step),才能转化为生成物反应。,2025/5/19 周一,19/68,2025/5/19 周一,20/68,三:,速率方程试验测定,1,,,作图法,:由浓度,-,时间动力学曲线可得到斜率,k,-,速率常数;,2,,,初速法,:可得到各反应物,反应级数,。,见,Flash,Rates at different time are different,v=-,H,2,O,2,/,t,(1)v=7.6310,-4,M,s,-1,(2)v=7.3110,-4,M,s,-1,(3)v=7.1310,-3,M,s,-1,2025/5/19 周一,21/68,Definition,:速率方程中各反应物浓度指数。,m is the order of A,n is the order of B,etc,总反应级数,Overall order of reaction=,m,+,n,+.,m is not necessary equal to a,.,for example:,NO,2,+CO=NO+CO,2,v,=kNO,2,CO,order=,1+1=,2,2H,2,O,2,=2H,2,O+,O,2,v,=kH,2,O,2,order=1,4HBr+O,2,=2H,2,O+2Br,2,v=kHBrO,2,order=1,+,1=,2,四:,反应级数,(Order of Reaction),2025/5/19 周一,22/68,2.,说明:,反应级数表示了反应物浓度对反应速率影响大小及关系;,The order of a reaction must be determined experimentally;,it cannot be deduced from the coefficients of the balanced equation.,反应级数只能试验测定,。,基元反应反应级数与反应式计量系数一致;,非基元反应则可能不一样。,反应级数能够是整数、分数、零或负数,。,零级反应表示了反应速率与反应物浓度无关。,Ex,:,NH,3,(g)=1/2 N,2,(g)+3/2 H,2,(g),。此反应在,Fe,或,W,催化下,发生分解,即为零级反应。,酶催化反应为零级反应,。,2025/5/19 周一,23/68,2025/5/19 周一,24/68,3.,反应级数确实定,One way to find the order of a reaction is to measure the initial rate(i.e.,the rate at,t,=0)as a function of the concentration of reactant.,基本方法:,a.,测定反应物浓度,C,随时间,t,改变,b.,作,C t,图,求各时刻速度,v,c.,分析,v,与浓度,C,关系,找出,m,、,n,观察法:,Ex.At the temperature of 650,o,C,data for the following reaction are in the table,CO(g)+NO,2,(g)=CO,2,(g)+NO(g).,Find the overall order of reaction,write the rate equation.,2025/5/19 周一,25/68,2025/5/19 周一,26/68,*,当二式相比,得:,2n=2.59(,非,2,整数指数幂,),,可用两边取对数方法,得:,n=lg(2.59)/lg 2,求得非整数值,n,。,2025/5/19 周一,27/68,例:,试验确定反应速率方程简单方法,初始速率法,比如:,反应相关试验数据以下:,该反应速率方程式:,2025/5/19 周一,28/68,2025/5/19 周一,29/68,4.,反应级数与速率常数单位,Zero-Order Reactions,零级反应,:酶催化和光化学反应、表面上多相反应,速率方程:,v=k,,反应速率与反应物浓度无关。,k,单位:,mol.L,-1,.s,-1,。,First-Order Reactions,一级反应,:许多重排和分解、全部反射性衰变反应,速率方程:,v=k c(A),,反应速率与反应物浓度成线性关系。,k,单位:(时间单位),-1,Second-Order Reactions,二级反应,:,=,k c,2,(A),k,量纲为,mol,-1,Ls,-1,2025/5/19 周一,30/68,5.Half-Life,(,半衰期,),of the first order reaction,t is the time taken for one-half of a reactant to be consumed.,(半衰期:某反应物消耗二分之一量所需时间),2025/5/19 周一,31/68,2025/5/19 周一,32/68,2025/5/19 周一,33/68,2025/5/19 周一,34/68,2.,3 Theories of Chemical Kinetics,*,1.,Collision Theory,碰撞理论,Kinetic-Molecular theory can be used to calculate the collision frequency.,In gases 10,30,collisions per second.,If each collision produced a reaction,the rate would be about 10,6,M,s,-1,.,Actual rates are on the order of 10,4,M,s,-1,.,Still a very rapid rate.,Only a fraction of collisions yield a reaction.,2025/5/19 周一,35/68,1.Collision Theory,方向性,-,Orientation of molecules may be important.,分子之间,碰撞,是反应发生先决条件。,对于一些物种,有效碰撞含有一定方向性。,NO,2,与,O,3,反应示意图,2025/5/19 周一,36/68,能量,Molecules should have sufficient kinetic energy.,只有,有效碰撞,才能造成化学反应。,发生有效碰撞分子应有足够动能。,If activation barrier is high,only a few molecules have,sufficient kinetic energy and,the reaction is slower.,(只有,少数反应物分子含有有效,动能,反应较慢),1.Collision Theory,N,E,barrier,2025/5/19 周一,37/68,增大反应速率方法:,增大单位时间内分子碰撞总数增加,浓度,;,增大碰撞总数中有效碰撞百分数升高,温度,。,1.Collision Theory,The fraction of all molecules having kinetic energies in excess of the value marked by the heavy black arrow:,Distribution of molecular kinetic,energies.,2025/5/19 周一,38/68,2.Transition State Theory,过渡态理论,For a reaction to occur there must be a redistribution of energy sufficient to break certain bonds in the reacting molecule(s).,反应过程中存在过渡状态-,活化络合物,(,高能量过渡态,),过渡状态是一个,不稳定状态,;,该理论很好解释了反应,活化能,Ea,NO,2,与,CO,反应示意图,2025/5/19 周一,39/68,2.Transition State Theory,2025/5/19 周一,40/68,活化能,Ea,(,activation energy),决定反应速率内在原因。,For every reaction,there is a certain minimum energy above the average kinetic energy that molecules must possess for collision to be effective.This is referred to as the activation energy.,活化能是能发生有效碰撞反应物分子最低能量与反 应物分子平均动能差值。,r,H,=,Ea,正,Ea,逆,。:吸热反应;:放热反应,2.Transition State Theory,2025/5/19 周一,41/68,化学反应过程中能量改变曲线,2025/5/19 周一,42/68,活化能在一定温度范围内可认为是常数。,活化能对反应速率影响很大。,E,a,越小,反应速率越大。,催化剂,能够改变反应活化能,故可改变反应速率。,*Some facts about,活化能,2.Transition State Theory,2025/5/19 周一,43/68,1.,温度与反应速率,Generally,,,T,10K,v 24,倍。,范特霍夫,(,vant Hoff),近似规则:,k,t+10,/k,t,24,。,2.,4 Reaction rate and Temperature,The fraction of all molecules having kinetic energies in excess of the value marked by the heavy black arrow:,Fig.Distribution of molecular kinetic energies.,2025/5/19 周一,44/68,2.,阿累尼乌斯,(,Arrhenius),公式,:,In 1889,Swedish physical chemist Svante Arrhenius found:,k=Ae,-Ea/RT,.,This equation is referred to as the Arrhenius equation.,A:,特征常数即指前因子(频率因子),Ea:,经验常数即,活化能,k:,反应速率常数,R:,摩尔气体常数8.314,J,mol,-1,K,-1,e:,自然对数,对数形式,:,2025/5/19 周一,45/68,3.,阿仑尼乌斯公式应用,-,flash,求某一温度下某反应,k,作图法,:,lgk,对1/,T,作图可得一直线关系,斜率:,-,Ea/2.303R,;,截距:,lgA,斜率大反应活化能,Ea,大,反应速率随温度升高增加较快,二点法,:不一样温度下反应速率常数,k,计算,已知 求反应,Ea,*,Known E,a,0,if T,2,T,1,lgk,2,/k,1,0,Then k,2,k,1,2025/5/19 周一,46/68,2025/5/19 周一,47/68,二点法,2025/5/19 周一,48/68,作图法,2025/5/19 周一,49/68,1,同一反应,低温时 和 高温时改变一样温度,低温时反应速率改变大。,2025/5/19 周一,50/68,2,不一样反应,改变相同温度,,Ea,大反应,,k,改变大。升温有利于活化能大反应。,2025/5/19 周一,51/68,Alternative reaction pathway of lower energy,.,改变反应路径,Homogeneous catalysis,.,均相催化,All species in the reaction are in solution.,Heterogeneous catalysis.,多相催化,The catalyst is in the solid state.,催化剂固相,Reactants from gas or solution phase are adsorbed.,气相或液相反应物被吸附,Active sites on the catalytic surface are important.,催化剂表面活性中心很关键,2.,5 catalysis-,自学,(self-study),2025/5/19 周一,52/68,一:催化剂及其基本特征,催化剂和催化作用:,正催化剂、负催化剂,(阻化剂,Negative catalyzer),催化剂特征:,催化剂只改变反应速率(,path,,路径,),,不改变反应方向(,direction,反应前后物质状态,);,催化剂同等降低正逆反应活化能,同时提升正逆反应速率。,催化剂有一定选择性,(selectivity),;,助催化剂,(,promoter),、,抑制剂,(inhibitor),、催化剂中毒,(toxicosis),;,反应前后催化剂不发生改变,但在反应过程中会改变。,2025/5/19 周一,53/68,Fig.,Alternative reaction pathway of,lower energy,催化条件下,E,a,无催化条件下,E,a,2025/5/19 周一,54/68,二:催化类型,化学催化,:均相催化,(,Homogeneous catalysis,),、非均相催化,(,Heterogeneous catalysis,),;,生物催化,:生命体中各种,酶催化,(enzyme catalysis),;,物理催化,:光催化、电催化、微波催化,1,均相催化,:催化剂与反应物种在同一相中催化反应。,Ex.Reaction in solution,2,多相催化,(表面催化):催化剂与反应物种不属于同一物相催化反应。,2025/5/19 周一,55/68,Ex.,汽,车尾气(,NO,和,CO),催化转化:,反应在固相催化剂表面活性中心上进行,催化剂分散在陶瓷载体上,其表面积很大,活性中心足够多,尾气可与催化剂充分接触。,2025/5/19 周一,56/68,酶(,enzyme):,生物体内含有催化作用一类蛋白质。,酶催化特点:,高效、高选择性、条件温和,三:酶催化-以酶为催化剂反应,2025/5/19 周一,57/68,酶化学模拟以金属酶化学模拟为主,。,固氮酶,(Nitrogenase)-,化学模拟,Nitrogen fixation.,全球年生物固氮量可达,1.75,亿吨,工业合成固氮量仅,0.5,亿吨。,生物体系:,N,2,+8H,+,+8e,-,+16MgATP,2NH,3,+H,2,+16MgADP+16Pi(i-,无机盐),工,业上合成氨:催化剂(,Fe)/,高温/高压。,化学模拟光合作用(,photosynthesis),Simulation of Enzyme Catalysis,2025/5/19 周一,58/68,Nitrogenase,2025/5/19 周一,59/68,2025/5/19 周一,60/68,Fig.Metal clusters of the nitrogenase MoFe protein.(A)FeMo-co and(B)the P-cluster in the reduced state.The amino acid ligands to FeMo-co are shown(-Cys275 and -His442).The central atom in the cavity of FeMo-co is colored as nitrogen.,2025/5/19 周一,61/68,Photosynthesis,H,2,O,CO,2,Solar energy,Chemical energy,O,2,nCO,2,+nH,2,O(CH,2,O),n,+nO,2,hv,biomass,2025/5/19 周一,62/68,PS ll,PS l,2025/5/19 周一,63/68,Photosystem II,(,PSII,)-,光合放氧,:,锰酶,锰基酶,能将电子转移至光合活性中心。其结构可能是,2Mn(II),2Mn(IV),混合氧化态四核锰簇合物。,2025/5/19 周一,64/68,D2,cp47,cp43,LHC II,Q,A,Fe,Cyt,b559,P680,2H,2,O,O,2,+4H,+,Q,B,Phe,D1,(Mn),4,7.3,Tyr,Z,A.Zouni,H.T.Witt,J.Kern,P.Fromme,N.Krauss,W.Saenger,P.Orth,Nature,739-743.,X-ray crystal structure with resolution 3.8,Photosystem II,2025/5/19 周一,65/68,氢酶,-,在生物体内催化氢可逆反应,是一个,Fe-S,蛋白。,植物,光合系统,I,经过氢酶能够催化放氢。,Photosystem I,(,PSI,)-,催化放氢,:,氢酶,proposed for:,Desulfovibrio desulfuricans,H-Cluster,2025/5/19 周一,66/68,Science,299,1686-1687,Redox-active components,Photosystem I,2H,+,+2e,H,2,2025/5/19 周一,67/68,作业,p289:,1,3,9,10,14(5,,不做),17,22,2025/5/19 周一,68/68,
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