1、单击以编辑母版标题样式,单击以编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,*,Chap 2:,Chemical Kinetics,For a chemical reaction,:,A+B,C,1.,Can it react?-Probability,可能性,2.,If so,how the reaction rate,?-,Practicability,现实性,3.,If so,how far the reaction going?,4.,If so,how the energy changing?,1,、,3,、,4,属于化学热力学问题,含有理论指导意义。,例:稀有气体(,N
2、obel Gas),反应性,2,属于化学动力学问题,含有实际应用意义。,例:人造金刚石(,Synthetic Diamond).,2025/5/19 周一,1/68,化学动力学任务(,Task):,研究化学反应速率-,study reaction rates,控制化学反应速率方法-,method to control rates,研究化学反应机理-,study the reaction mechanism,化学反应介绍,(Introduction),均相反应,(homogeneous),:单一相中反应;,多相反应,(polyphase or heterogeneous),:相界面上进行反应。,
3、影响反应速率原因:接触面积,非浓度。,增大接触面积:研磨(,s-s、s-g)、,搅拌(,s-l、l-l),Ex.,催化剂多孔性分布硅藻土。,2025/5/19 周一,2/68,Main contents,Chemical reaction rate(,化学反应速率,),:,average rate,instantaneous rate,reaction progress,反应进度,Factor effected on the reaction rate,concentration,:速率方程,、,反应级数、速率常数(,k)、,基元反应、质量作用定律、,temperature,:速率常数,k,与
4、温度关系,-,阿仑尼乌斯公式,反应速率理论介绍,*-自学为主,碰撞理论,(,collision theory),过渡态理论,(transient state theory),:,活化能,(activation energy),、,催化剂,(,Catalyst),催化剂对反应速率影响,2025/5/19 周一,3/68,2.1,Chemical reaction rate,1.化学反应速率(,v),Rate of change of concentration with time.,(,化学反应速率可用反应物或生成物浓度随时间改变率表示,),2 Fe,3+,(aq)+Sn,2+,2 Fe,2+,
5、aq)+Sn,4+,(aq),t=0 0.0030M 0.0015M 0 0,t=38.5s 0.0020M 0.0010M 0.0010 M 0.0005M,c,-0.0010M -0.0005M 0.0010 M 0.0005M,Rate of formation of Fe,2+,Rate of disappearance of Sn,2+,2025/5/19 周一,4/68,数学表示式,(mathematic representation):,For any reaction:,AB,Unit,单位:,moldm,-3,(or L,-1,)s,-1,(,时间:,s,min,hr,d,
6、a.),平均速率,Average rate,(,v),-不一样时间段平均速率不一样;,瞬时速率,Instant rate(v),-,某一时刻时反应速率。,*,以反应物浓度降低或生成物浓度增大表示时符号不一样;,*,用不一样物质浓度改变表示反应速率使不一样。例:,N,2,(g)+3H,2,(g)=2NH,3,(g)。,不统一,!?,2025/5/19 周一,5/68,General reaction,:,为了使反应速率有一致确实定值,现行国际单位制提议用,B,物质化学计量数,B,去除,dc,B,/dt,。,When the system volume is constant,,,Definiti
7、on of reaction rate,:反应进度,随时间改变率。,aA +dD gG +hH,2.,反应进度,(,),与,reaction rate,(,v,),2025/5/19 周一,6/68,化学计量数与反应进度(补充),化学计量数(,Stoichiometric number),For chemical equation:,OVR.,If let,then,称,B,为化学计量式中,B,计量数,。,For reactant,B,is negative,;,product,B,is positive,2025/5/19 周一,7/68,Ex.Photosynthesis reaction
8、若将反应式写为,化学计量数与化学计量式相关,!,2025/5/19 周一,8/68,Reaction progress,对于化学计量方程式,若定义,称,为反应进度,表示物质改变量除以对应化学计量系数,,SI,单位:,mol。,When start,,,0,=0,,then,For the product:,2025/5/19 周一,9/68,反应进度,-表示一个反应进行程度,量纲:,mol,物理意义:=1,mol,指按化学计量方程式进行一个单位反应。,Note:,反应进度,表示与计量方程式写法相关。,2.0 7.0 2.0 (,mol),3.0 10.0 0 (,mol),2025/5/19
9、 周一,10/68,3.0 10.0 0 0,2.0 7.0 2.0,1.5 5.5 3.0,Ex.,2025/5/19 周一,11/68,几点说明:,0 0 0 0 0,-6 -6 1 6 1,-12 -12 2 12 2,-3 -3 1/2 3 1/2,*反应进度与反应式中组分无关,。,2025/5/19 周一,12/68,Given,A B C D,-6 -6 1 6,-1 -1 1/6 1,*反应进度相同,反应方程式不一样,各组分物质量改变不一样。,2025/5/19 周一,13/68,Practice 1,According to the reaction below,when NO
10、 is reacting at the rate of 0.10 mol L,-1,s,-1,at what rate is O,2,reacting?,2NO(g)+O,2,(g)=2NO(g),A.0.30 mol,L,-1,s,-1,B.0.20 mol,L,-1,s,-1,C.0.050 mol,L,-1,s,-1,D.0.10 mol,L,-1,s,-1,2025/5/19 周一,14/68,The decomposition of N,2,O,5,proceeds according to the equation:,2N,2,O,5,(g),4NO,2,(g)+O,2,(g),I
11、f the rate of decomposition of at a particular in a reaction vessel is 4.21,1,0,-7,mol,dm,-3,s,-1,what is the rate of appearance of(a)NO,2,;(b)O,2,?,Practice 2,Answers:,(a)8.4,1,0-7mol,dm,-3,s,-1,;,(b)2.1,1,0-7mol,dm,-3,s,-1,2025/5/19 周一,15/68,2.,2 Reaction rate and Concentration,一:速率方程和速率常数(,k),速率方
12、程,(rate equation),:把反应物浓度和反应速率联络起来数学表示式。,aA+bB+,gG+hH+,Rate of reaction v=k A,m,B,n,.,k,is,rate constant,(unit,?,),m,n,are,Order of Reaction,(,反应级数,),Generally,m,a,n,b,。,E,xception,:,简单反应(基元反应),,依据,质量作用定律,(.swf),可写出数学表示式。,2025/5/19 周一,16/68,Notes,:,反应速率常数,(,rate constant,k,),物理意义:,the reaction rate
13、at the unit concentration(,单位浓度时反应速率,),;,k,只取决于反应,本性,(,Ea,,活化能,),和,温度,,,k,是温度函数,,k,与浓度无关。,k,单位(量纲)随速率方程改变。,(mol,L,-1,),1-m-n-,s,-1,?,How it to be deduced?,k,普通由试验测得。只有,基元反应,才能够直接写出。,2025/5/19 周一,17/68,二:,基元反应与非基元反应,Elementary Steps,基元反应,:,反应物分子在有效碰撞中,经过一次化学改变,(one-step),就能转化为产物反应。,The individual ste
14、ps that constitute a reaction mechanism are referred to as elementary steps.,由一个基元反应组成化学反应又称,简单反应。,只有,基元反应,才可,依据,质量作用定律,直接写出速率方程式,*质量作用定律:,恒温下,基元反应反应速度与各反应物浓度系数次方乘积成正比。,aA+bB,gG+hH,v=k A,a,B,b,2025/5/19 周一,18/68,非基元反应速率方程式,不能依据反应式写出其速率方程,必须依据试验测定结果由反应历程推出,并验证,;,复杂非基元反应,分成若干个基元反应 反应最慢一步作为,速控步骤,(,Rate
15、 Determining Step,),。,最慢一个反应控制了该复杂反应反应速率。,非基元反应(,复杂反应,),:,反应物分子需经,几步反应,(multi-step),才能转化为生成物反应。,2025/5/19 周一,19/68,2025/5/19 周一,20/68,三:,速率方程试验测定,1,,,作图法,:由浓度,-,时间动力学曲线可得到斜率,k,-,速率常数;,2,,,初速法,:可得到各反应物,反应级数,。,见,Flash,Rates at different time are different,v=-,H,2,O,2,/,t,(1)v=7.6310,-4,M,s,-1,(2)v=7.3
16、110,-4,M,s,-1,(3)v=7.1310,-3,M,s,-1,2025/5/19 周一,21/68,Definition,:速率方程中各反应物浓度指数。,m is the order of A,n is the order of B,etc,总反应级数,Overall order of reaction=,m,+,n,+.,m is not necessary equal to a,.,for example:,NO,2,+CO=NO+CO,2,v,=kNO,2,CO,order=,1+1=,2,2H,2,O,2,=2H,2,O+,O,2,v,=kH,2,O,2,order=1,4H
17、Br+O,2,=2H,2,O+2Br,2,v=kHBrO,2,order=1,+,1=,2,四:,反应级数,(Order of Reaction),2025/5/19 周一,22/68,2.,说明:,反应级数表示了反应物浓度对反应速率影响大小及关系;,The order of a reaction must be determined experimentally;,it cannot be deduced from the coefficients of the balanced equation.,反应级数只能试验测定,。,基元反应反应级数与反应式计量系数一致;,非基元反应则可能不一样。,
18、反应级数能够是整数、分数、零或负数,。,零级反应表示了反应速率与反应物浓度无关。,Ex,:,NH,3,(g)=1/2 N,2,(g)+3/2 H,2,(g),。此反应在,Fe,或,W,催化下,发生分解,即为零级反应。,酶催化反应为零级反应,。,2025/5/19 周一,23/68,2025/5/19 周一,24/68,3.,反应级数确实定,One way to find the order of a reaction is to measure the initial rate(i.e.,the rate at,t,=0)as a function of the concentration o
19、f reactant.,基本方法:,a.,测定反应物浓度,C,随时间,t,改变,b.,作,C t,图,求各时刻速度,v,c.,分析,v,与浓度,C,关系,找出,m,、,n,观察法:,Ex.At the temperature of 650,o,C,data for the following reaction are in the table,CO(g)+NO,2,(g)=CO,2,(g)+NO(g).,Find the overall order of reaction,write the rate equation.,2025/5/19 周一,25/68,2025/5/19 周一,26/6
20、8,*,当二式相比,得:,2n=2.59(,非,2,整数指数幂,),,可用两边取对数方法,得:,n=lg(2.59)/lg 2,求得非整数值,n,。,2025/5/19 周一,27/68,例:,试验确定反应速率方程简单方法,初始速率法,比如:,反应相关试验数据以下:,该反应速率方程式:,2025/5/19 周一,28/68,2025/5/19 周一,29/68,4.,反应级数与速率常数单位,Zero-Order Reactions,零级反应,:酶催化和光化学反应、表面上多相反应,速率方程:,v=k,,反应速率与反应物浓度无关。,k,单位:,mol.L,-1,.s,-1,。,First-Orde
21、r Reactions,一级反应,:许多重排和分解、全部反射性衰变反应,速率方程:,v=k c(A),,反应速率与反应物浓度成线性关系。,k,单位:(时间单位),-1,Second-Order Reactions,二级反应,:,=,k c,2,(A),k,量纲为,mol,-1,Ls,-1,2025/5/19 周一,30/68,5.Half-Life,(,半衰期,),of the first order reaction,t is the time taken for one-half of a reactant to be consumed.,(半衰期:某反应物消耗二分之一量所需时间),202
22、5/5/19 周一,31/68,2025/5/19 周一,32/68,2025/5/19 周一,33/68,2025/5/19 周一,34/68,2.,3 Theories of Chemical Kinetics,*,1.,Collision Theory,碰撞理论,Kinetic-Molecular theory can be used to calculate the collision frequency.,In gases 10,30,collisions per second.,If each collision produced a reaction,the rate would
23、 be about 10,6,M,s,-1,.,Actual rates are on the order of 10,4,M,s,-1,.,Still a very rapid rate.,Only a fraction of collisions yield a reaction.,2025/5/19 周一,35/68,1.Collision Theory,方向性,-,Orientation of molecules may be important.,分子之间,碰撞,是反应发生先决条件。,对于一些物种,有效碰撞含有一定方向性。,NO,2,与,O,3,反应示意图,2025/5/19 周一,
24、36/68,能量,Molecules should have sufficient kinetic energy.,只有,有效碰撞,才能造成化学反应。,发生有效碰撞分子应有足够动能。,If activation barrier is high,only a few molecules have,sufficient kinetic energy and,the reaction is slower.,(只有,少数反应物分子含有有效,动能,反应较慢),1.Collision Theory,N,E,barrier,2025/5/19 周一,37/68,增大反应速率方法:,增大单位时间内分子碰撞总数
25、增加,浓度,;,增大碰撞总数中有效碰撞百分数升高,温度,。,1.Collision Theory,The fraction of all molecules having kinetic energies in excess of the value marked by the heavy black arrow:,Distribution of molecular kinetic,energies.,2025/5/19 周一,38/68,2.Transition State Theory,过渡态理论,For a reaction to occur there must be a redist
26、ribution of energy sufficient to break certain bonds in the reacting molecule(s).,反应过程中存在过渡状态-,活化络合物,(,高能量过渡态,),过渡状态是一个,不稳定状态,;,该理论很好解释了反应,活化能,Ea,NO,2,与,CO,反应示意图,2025/5/19 周一,39/68,2.Transition State Theory,2025/5/19 周一,40/68,活化能,Ea,(,activation energy),决定反应速率内在原因。,For every reaction,there is a cert
27、ain minimum energy above the average kinetic energy that molecules must possess for collision to be effective.This is referred to as the activation energy.,活化能是能发生有效碰撞反应物分子最低能量与反 应物分子平均动能差值。,r,H,=,Ea,正,Ea,逆,。:吸热反应;:放热反应,2.Transition State Theory,2025/5/19 周一,41/68,化学反应过程中能量改变曲线,2025/5/19 周一,42/68,活化
28、能在一定温度范围内可认为是常数。,活化能对反应速率影响很大。,E,a,越小,反应速率越大。,催化剂,能够改变反应活化能,故可改变反应速率。,*Some facts about,活化能,2.Transition State Theory,2025/5/19 周一,43/68,1.,温度与反应速率,Generally,,,T,10K,v 24,倍。,范特霍夫,(,vant Hoff),近似规则:,k,t+10,/k,t,24,。,2.,4 Reaction rate and Temperature,The fraction of all molecules having kinetic energ
29、ies in excess of the value marked by the heavy black arrow:,Fig.Distribution of molecular kinetic energies.,2025/5/19 周一,44/68,2.,阿累尼乌斯,(,Arrhenius),公式,:,In 1889,Swedish physical chemist Svante Arrhenius found:,k=Ae,-Ea/RT,.,This equation is referred to as the Arrhenius equation.,A:,特征常数即指前因子(频率因子),
30、Ea:,经验常数即,活化能,k:,反应速率常数,R:,摩尔气体常数8.314,J,mol,-1,K,-1,e:,自然对数,对数形式,:,2025/5/19 周一,45/68,3.,阿仑尼乌斯公式应用,-,flash,求某一温度下某反应,k,作图法,:,lgk,对1/,T,作图可得一直线关系,斜率:,-,Ea/2.303R,;,截距:,lgA,斜率大反应活化能,Ea,大,反应速率随温度升高增加较快,二点法,:不一样温度下反应速率常数,k,计算,已知 求反应,Ea,*,Known E,a,0,if T,2,T,1,lgk,2,/k,1,0,Then k,2,k,1,2025/5/19 周一,46/
31、68,2025/5/19 周一,47/68,二点法,2025/5/19 周一,48/68,作图法,2025/5/19 周一,49/68,1,同一反应,低温时 和 高温时改变一样温度,低温时反应速率改变大。,2025/5/19 周一,50/68,2,不一样反应,改变相同温度,,Ea,大反应,,k,改变大。升温有利于活化能大反应。,2025/5/19 周一,51/68,Alternative reaction pathway of lower energy,.,改变反应路径,Homogeneous catalysis,.,均相催化,All species in the reaction are i
32、n solution.,Heterogeneous catalysis.,多相催化,The catalyst is in the solid state.,催化剂固相,Reactants from gas or solution phase are adsorbed.,气相或液相反应物被吸附,Active sites on the catalytic surface are important.,催化剂表面活性中心很关键,2.,5 catalysis-,自学,(self-study),2025/5/19 周一,52/68,一:催化剂及其基本特征,催化剂和催化作用:,正催化剂、负催化剂,(阻化剂
33、Negative catalyzer),催化剂特征:,催化剂只改变反应速率(,path,,路径,),,不改变反应方向(,direction,反应前后物质状态,);,催化剂同等降低正逆反应活化能,同时提升正逆反应速率。,催化剂有一定选择性,(selectivity),;,助催化剂,(,promoter),、,抑制剂,(inhibitor),、催化剂中毒,(toxicosis),;,反应前后催化剂不发生改变,但在反应过程中会改变。,2025/5/19 周一,53/68,Fig.,Alternative reaction pathway of,lower energy,催化条件下,E,a,无催化条
34、件下,E,a,2025/5/19 周一,54/68,二:催化类型,化学催化,:均相催化,(,Homogeneous catalysis,),、非均相催化,(,Heterogeneous catalysis,),;,生物催化,:生命体中各种,酶催化,(enzyme catalysis),;,物理催化,:光催化、电催化、微波催化,1,均相催化,:催化剂与反应物种在同一相中催化反应。,Ex.Reaction in solution,2,多相催化,(表面催化):催化剂与反应物种不属于同一物相催化反应。,2025/5/19 周一,55/68,Ex.,汽,车尾气(,NO,和,CO),催化转化:,反应在固相
35、催化剂表面活性中心上进行,催化剂分散在陶瓷载体上,其表面积很大,活性中心足够多,尾气可与催化剂充分接触。,2025/5/19 周一,56/68,酶(,enzyme):,生物体内含有催化作用一类蛋白质。,酶催化特点:,高效、高选择性、条件温和,三:酶催化-以酶为催化剂反应,2025/5/19 周一,57/68,酶化学模拟以金属酶化学模拟为主,。,固氮酶,(Nitrogenase)-,化学模拟,Nitrogen fixation.,全球年生物固氮量可达,1.75,亿吨,工业合成固氮量仅,0.5,亿吨。,生物体系:,N,2,+8H,+,+8e,-,+16MgATP,2NH,3,+H,2,+16MgA
36、DP+16Pi(i-,无机盐),工,业上合成氨:催化剂(,Fe)/,高温/高压。,化学模拟光合作用(,photosynthesis),Simulation of Enzyme Catalysis,2025/5/19 周一,58/68,Nitrogenase,2025/5/19 周一,59/68,2025/5/19 周一,60/68,Fig.Metal clusters of the nitrogenase MoFe protein.(A)FeMo-co and(B)the P-cluster in the reduced state.The amino acid ligands to FeMo
37、co are shown(-Cys275 and -His442).The central atom in the cavity of FeMo-co is colored as nitrogen.,2025/5/19 周一,61/68,Photosynthesis,H,2,O,CO,2,Solar energy,Chemical energy,O,2,nCO,2,+nH,2,O(CH,2,O),n,+nO,2,hv,biomass,2025/5/19 周一,62/68,PS ll,PS l,2025/5/19 周一,63/68,Photosystem II,(,PSII,)-,光合放氧,:
38、锰酶,锰基酶,能将电子转移至光合活性中心。其结构可能是,2Mn(II),2Mn(IV),混合氧化态四核锰簇合物。,2025/5/19 周一,64/68,D2,cp47,cp43,LHC II,Q,A,Fe,Cyt,b559,P680,2H,2,O,O,2,+4H,+,Q,B,Phe,D1,(Mn),4,7.3,Tyr,Z,A.Zouni,H.T.Witt,J.Kern,P.Fromme,N.Krauss,W.Saenger,P.Orth,Nature,739-743.,X-ray crystal structure with resolution 3.8,Photosystem II,202
39、5/5/19 周一,65/68,氢酶,-,在生物体内催化氢可逆反应,是一个,Fe-S,蛋白。,植物,光合系统,I,经过氢酶能够催化放氢。,Photosystem I,(,PSI,)-,催化放氢,:,氢酶,proposed for:,Desulfovibrio desulfuricans,H-Cluster,2025/5/19 周一,66/68,Science,299,1686-1687,Redox-active components,Photosystem I,2H,+,+2e,H,2,2025/5/19 周一,67/68,作业,p289:,1,3,9,10,14(5,,不做),17,22,2025/5/19 周一,68/68,
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