第十一章Europe-in-the-nineteen-century.pptx

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,Edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,20/9/1,#,CHAPTER,11,Europe,in,the,nineteenth,century,THE,TRADITIONAL,ECONOMY,THE,INDUSTRIAL,REVOLUTION,IN,BRITAIN,BUILDING,NATIONS,CHANGING,VALUES,AND,THE,FORCE,OF,NEW,IDEAS,i.,THE,TRADITIONAL,ECONOMY,The,Agricultural,Revolution,The Agricultural Revolution,The,continued growth of Europes population,necessitated,an,expansion of agricultural output.In most places,this was achieved by intensifying traditional practices,bringing more land into production,and using more labor to work the land.But in the most advanced European economies,first in Holland and then in England,traditional agriculture underwent a long but dynamic transformation,an agricultural revolution.It was a revolution of technique rather than technology.Many of the methods that were to increase crop yields had been known for centuries but had never been practiced as systematically as they came to be from the seventeenth century onward and had never been combined with a commercial attitude toward farming.It was the owners willingness and ability to invest capital in their land that transformed subsistence farming into commercial agriculture.,Enclosures,Commercial,agriculture,was more suited to large estates than small ones and was more successful when the land could be utilized in response to market conditions rather than the necessities,of,subsistence,.,The,consolidation of estates and the enclosure of fields,were thus the initial steps in a waited to inherit land before they formed their families,the sons of cottage weavers needed only a loom to begin theirs.They could afford to marry younger and to have more children,for children could contribute to manufacturing from an early age.Consequently,the expansion of the putting-out system contributed to overpopulation.The putting-out system was labor-intensive,and as long as there were ready hands to long-term process of change.,Market production,The enclosure of millions of acres of land was one of the largest expenses of the new commercial agriculture.As hedging or fencing off the land and plowing up the commons proceeded,more and more agricultural activity become market-oriented.Single crops were sown in large enclosed fields and exchanged at market for the mixture of goods that had previously been grown in the village.Market production turned farmers attention from producing a balance of commodities to increasing the yield of a single commodity.,II.,THE,INDUSTRIAL,REVOLUTION,IN,BRITAIN,Economic,infrastructure,The,steam,engine,The,cotton,is,king.,The,industrialization,of,the,continent,manufacturing that began in Britain,during,the eighteenth century were more revolutionary in consequence than in development.A workforce that was predominantly agricultural in 1750 had become predominantly industrial a century later.A population that for centuries had centered on the south and east was now concentrated in the north and west.Liverpool,Manchester,Glasgow,and Birmingham mushroomed into giant cities.While the population of England grew by 100 percent between 1801 and 1851,from about 8.5 million to over 17 million,the populations of Liverpool and Manchester grew by over 1,000 percent.,The Industrial Revolution,a,sustained period of economic growth and change brought about by the application of mineral energy and technological innovations to the process of manufacturing.It took place largely during the century between 1750 and 1850,though different industries moved at different paces and sustained economic growth continued in Britain until the First World War.,The Industrial Revolution occurred first in Britain,buteven,in Britain,industrialization was a regional phenomenon rather than a national one.Many areas of Britain remained untouched by innovations in manufacturing methods and agricultural techniques,though none remained unaffected by the prosperity that industrialization brought.This was the result of both national conditions and historical developments.When industrialization spread to the Continent,it took hold,as it had in Britain,in regions where mineral resources were abundant or where domestic manufacturing was a traditional activity.There was no single model for European industrialization,however often contemporaries looked toward Britain for the key to unlock the power of economic growth.,The Steam Engine.,Like,most innovations of the Industrial Revolution,James Watts steam engine was an adaptation of existing technology.Although Watt is credited with the invention of the condensing steam engine,one of the seminal creations in human history,the success of his work depended on the achievements of numerous other people.An instrument maker in Glasgow,Watt was asked to repair a model of a Newcomen engine and immediately realized that it would work more efficiently if there were a separate chamber for the condensation of the steam.Though his idea was sound,Watt spent years attempting to implement it.He did not succeed until he became partners with the Birmingham iron maker and manufacturer Matthew Boulton(17281809).At Boultons works,Watt found craft workers who could make precision engine valves,and at the foundries of John Wilkinson(17281808)he found workers who could bore the cylinders of his engine to exact specifications.Watt later designed the mechanism to convert the traditional up-and-down motion of the pumping engine into rotary motion,which could be used for machines and ultimately for locomotion.,Cotton Is King,Traditionally,British commerce was dominated by,the,woolen,cloth trade,in which techniques of production had not changed for hundreds of years.During the course of the seventeenth century,new fabrics appeared on the domestic market,particularly linen,silk,and cotton.It was cotton that captured the imagination of the eighteenth-century consumer,especially brightly colored,finely spun Indian cotton.,The First Railways.,In,1830,the first modern railway,the Manchester-to-Liverpool line,was opened.Like the Duke of Bridgewaters canal,it was designed to move coal and bulk goods,but surprisingly,its most important function came to be moving people.,Expansion of Wealth.,The,Industrial Revolution brought a vast expansion of wealth and a vast expansion of people to share it.Agricultural and industrial change made it possible to support comfortably a population over three times that of the seventeenth century,when it was widely believed that England had reached the limits of expansion.,THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF THE CONTINENT,There was no single model for the industrialization of the continental states.Contemporaries continually made comparisons with Britain,but in truth the process of British industrialization was not well suited to any part,of,the Continent but the coal-rich regions in Belgium and the Rhineland.,Nevertheless,all of Europe benefited from the British experience.No one else had to invent the jenny,the mule,or the steam engine.Therefore,although industrialization began later on the Continent,it could progress more quickly.France and Germany were building a railroad system within years of Britain,despite the fact that they had to import most of the technology,raw materials,and engineers.,Britain shaped European industrialization,Britain shaped European industrialization in another way.Its head start made it very difficult for follower nations to compete against British commodities in the world market.This meant that European industrialization would be directed first and foremost to home markets,where tariffs and import quotas could protect fledgling industries.Though European states were willing to import vital British products,they placed high duties on British-made consumer goods and encouraged higher-cost domestic production.Britains competitive advantage demanded that European governments become involved in the industrialization of their countries,financing capital-intensive industries,backing the railroads,and favoring the establishment of factories.,III.,BUILDING,NATIONS,The,birth,of,the,German,Empire,The,Crimean,War,The,Franco-Prussian,War,The,United,States:,The,Civil,War,Nationalism,The Crimean War,In,1849 and 1850,Russia had fulfilled its role,as,policeman,of Europe by supporting Austria against Hungary and Prussia.Yet Russia was not merely content to keep,the,peace;it sought greater power to the south in the Balkans.The narrow straits connecting the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea were controlled by the Ottoman Empire.Russia hoped to benefit from Ottoman weakness caused by internal conflicts and gain control of the straits as an outlet for the Russian fleet to the Mediterranean.,the,Eastern Question,At the center of the hope for Ottoman disintegration lay the,Eastern Question,the term that was used in the nineteenth century to designate the problems surrounding the European territories controlled by the Ottoman Empire.Each of the Great PowersRussia,Great Britain,Austria,Prussia,and Francehoped to benefit territorially from the collapse of Ottoman control.In 1853,Great Power rivalry over the Eastern Question created an international situation that led to war.,The,crimean,war,In 1853,the Russian government demanded that the Turkish government recognize Russias right to protect Greek Orthodox believers in the Ottoman Empire.The Turkish government refused Russian demands,and the Russians ordered troops to enter the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia,which were held by the Turks.,In October 1853,the Turkish government,counting on support from Great Britain and France,declared war on Russia.Russia easily prevailed over its weaker neighbor to the south.In a four-hour battle,a Russian squadron destroyed the Turkish fleet off the coast of Sinope.Tsar Nicholas I(18251855)drew up the terms of a settlement with the Ottoman Empire and submitted them to Great Britain and France for review.,The,two western European powers,fearing Russian aggrandizement at Turkish expense,responded by declaring war on Russia on 28 March 1854,a date that marked a new phase in the Crimean War.The Italian kingdom of Sardinia also joined the war against Russia in January 1855,hoping to make its name militarily and win recognition for its aim to unite Italy into a single nation.Although Great Britain,France,and the Italian state of Sardinia did not have explicit economic interests,they were motivated by ambition,prestige,and rivalry in the Balkans.British and French troops landed in the Crimea,the Russian peninsula extending into the Black Sea,in September 1854,with the intention of capturing Sevastopol,Russias heavily fortified chief naval base on the Black Sea.The allies laid siege to the fortress at Sevastopol,which fell on 11 September 1855 after 322 days of battle.The defeated Russians abandoned,the,Franco-Prussian War.,Bismarcks,biggest obstacle to German unification was laid to rest with Austrias defeat.The south German states continued to resist the idea of Prussian dominance,but growing numbers of people in Baden,Wrttemberg,Bavaria,and the southern parts of Hesse-Darmstadt recognized the value of uniting under Prussian leadership.,Many French observers were troubled by the Prussian victory over Austria and were apprehensive about what a united Germany might portend for the future of French dominance in Europe.Napoleon III attempted unsuccessfully to contain Prussian ambitions through diplomatic maneuverings.Instead,France found itself stranded without important European allies.In the spring of 1870,Bismarck seized the initiative and provoked a crisis with France.The issue of succession to the Spanish throne provided the pretext.On 13 July 1870,the Prussian king(later Emperor William,sent a message to Napoleon III reporting a meeting with the French ambassador.Bismarck skillfully edited this“Ems Dispatch”to suggest that the French ambassador had insulted the Prussian king,then leaked news of the incident to the press in both countries.,The United States:Civil War and Reunification,In,the 1860s,another crisis in state building was resolved,across the Atlantic.The United States cemented political unity through the use of force in its Civil War(18611865).The president of the United States,Abraham Lincoln(1809 1865),mobilized the superior resources of the industrial Northern states against the heavily agrarian,slave-owning South.The United States worked to achieve national unity and territorial integrity in another sense through ongoing expansion westward by eliminating and subduing Native American peoples.With the emancipation of the slaves,republican democracy appeared to triumph in the United States.Newly created European nation-states followed a different path:Plebiscites were manipulated by those in power in Italy,and a neo-absolutism emerged in Germany.Yet the Civil War in the United States and the successful bids for unification in Italy and Germany shared remarkable similarities.In all three countries,wars eventually resulted in a single national market and a single financial system without internal barriers.Unified national economies,particularly in Germany and the United States,paved the way for significant economic growth and the expansion of industrial power.,Reforming,European,society,The,Second,Empire,in,France,1852-1870,Napoleon,III,The,Victorian,Compromise:,Parliamentary,Reforms,The Second Empire in France,18521870,One,model was that of France,where the,Frenchemperor,worked through a highly centralized administrative structure and with a valued elite of specialists to achieve social and economic transformation.,The Victorian Compromise,Great,Britain provided another model of,reform,which,was fostered through liberal parliamentary democracy.In government by“amateurs,”with local rather than a highly centralized administration,British legislation alternated between a philosophy of freedom and one of protection.But reforms were always hammered out by parliamentary means with the support of a gradually expanding electorate.,Parliamentary Reforms.,In,contrast to France,Britain enjoyed apparent social harmony without revolution and without civil war.The relative calm of British society in the middle of the nineteenth century owed much to the fact that Great Britain had an enormously productive capitalist economy of sustained growth.,The stability and calm were undoubtedly exaggerated,however,for Great Britain at midcentury had its share of serious social problems.British slums rivaled any in Europe.Poverty,disease,and famine ravaged the kingdom.Social protests of the 1840s raised fears of upheavals similar to those in continental Europe.Yet Great Britain avoided a revolution.One explanation for the relative calm lay in Britains parliamentary tradition,which emphasized liberty as the birthright of English citizens and was able slowly to adapt to the demands of an industrializing society.The great compromise of Victorian society was the reconciliation of industrialists commitment to unimpeded growth w