How-to-Write-a-Scientific-Paper.pptx

How to Write a Scientific Paper?By George M.Whitesides Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology,Harvard University,Cambridge,MA 02138,USA 怎样撰写科学论文?原著:George M.Whitesides(美国)译者:张 希，林志宏PPT编排:苑立波 Contents oWhat is a scientific paper?oThe reason for outlinesoHow should you construct an outline?oWhat should an outline contain?oIntroductionoResults and DiscussionoConclusionoExperimentaloIn summaryoSome Points of English Style What is a scientific paper?What is a scientific paper?什么是科技论文？什么是科技论文？oA paper is an organized description of hypotheses,data and conclusions,intended to instruct the reader.Papers are a central part of research.If your research does not generate papers,it might just as well not have been done.“Interesting and unpublished”is equivalent to“non-existent.”o科技论文是集假说、数据科技论文是集假说、数据和结论为一体的概括性描和结论为一体的概括性描述，以此向读者论述。论述，以此向读者论述。论文是研究工作的中心部分。文是研究工作的中心部分。如果你的研究没有写成论如果你的研究没有写成论文，也就等同于没有做研文，也就等同于没有做研究。有意义但没有发表，究。有意义但没有发表，等同于不存在。等同于不存在。oRealize that your objective in research is to formulate and test hypotheses,to draw conclusions from these tests,and to teach these conclusions to others.Your objective is not to“collect data.”o要意识到研究的目的要意识到研究的目的是为了形成并证实假是为了形成并证实假说，从一些测试中得说，从一些测试中得出结论，并把结论传出结论，并把结论传授给别人。你的研究授给别人。你的研究目的不是简单的收集目的不是简单的收集数据。数据。What is a scientific paper?什么是科技论文？什么是科技论文？oA paper is not just an archival device for storing a completed research program,it is also a structure for planning your research in progress.If you clearly understand the purpose and form of a paper,it can be immensely useful to you in organizing and conducting your research.o一篇论文并不仅仅是收集一篇论文并不仅仅是收集已经得到的研究结果，它已经得到的研究结果，它也有助于形成进一步的研也有助于形成进一步的研究工作的框架。如果明确究工作的框架。如果明确了论文的目的，这对于计了论文的目的，这对于计划开展你的研究工作有很划开展你的研究工作有很大益处。大益处。What is a scientific paper?什么是科技论文？什么是科技论文？oA good outline for the paper is also a good plan for the research program.You should write and rewrite these plans/outlines throughout the course of the research.At the beginning,you will have mostly plan;o好的文章提要也是研好的文章提要也是研究工作的好计划，在究工作的好计划，在研究的过程中，应该研究的过程中，应该反复修改这些计划或反复修改这些计划或提要。研究工作开始提要。研究工作开始时，应有完善的计划；时，应有完善的计划；What is a scientific paper?什么是科技论文？什么是科技论文？oat the end,mostly outline.The continuous effort to understand,analyze,summarize,and reformulate hypotheses on paper will be immensely more efficient for you than a process in which you collect data and only start to organize them when their collection is“complete.”o工作结束时，应充分的总工作结束时，应充分的总结。最有效率的做法是及结。最有效率的做法是及时的理解，时的理解，分析，分析，总结，总结，形成假说；形成假说；而不是等到完而不是等到完成时才开始收集和整理数成时才开始收集和整理数据。据。What is a scientific paper?什么是科技论文？什么是科技论文？The reason for outlinesThe reason for outlines.为什么要写提纲？为什么要写提纲？oI emphasize the central place of an outline in writing papers,preparing seminars,and planning research.I especially believe that for you,and for me,it is most efficient to write papers from outlines.o我在这里要强调提纲我在这里要强调提纲在论文写作，准备报在论文写作，准备报告以及研究计划中的告以及研究计划中的重要作用。我尤其相重要作用。我尤其相信按照提纲进行写作信按照提纲进行写作对我们大家都是最有对我们大家都是最有效的方法。效的方法。oAn outline is a written plan of the organization of a paper,including the data on which it rests.You should,in fact,think of an outline as a carefully organized and presented set of data,with attendant objectives,hypotheses and conclusions,rather than an outline of text.o提纲是一篇论文的行文计提纲是一篇论文的行文计划，应该包括论文所依靠划，应该包括论文所依靠的数据。事实上，提纲不的数据。事实上，提纲不仅仅是列出各段的内容，仅仅是列出各段的内容，而是按照目的，而是按照目的，假说，假说，结论来精心组织数据。结论来精心组织数据。The reason for outlines.为什么要写提纲？为什么要写提纲？oAn outline itself contains little text.If you and I can agree on the details of the outline(that is,on the data and organization),the supporting text can be assembled fairly easily.If we do not agree on the outline,any text is useless.Much of the time in writing a paper goes into the text;o提纲本身应该文字简练。提纲本身应该文字简练。如果大家都同意提纲中的如果大家都同意提纲中的细节部分，那么正文组织细节部分，那么正文组织起来就更容易。在我们就起来就更容易。在我们就提纲达成一致以前，写正提纲达成一致以前，写正文是没有意义的。文是没有意义的。写文章写文章时，大部份时间花在写正时，大部份时间花在写正文上；文上；The reason for outlines.为什么要写提纲？为什么要写提纲？omost of the thought goes into the organization of the data and into the analysis.It can be relatively efficient to go through several(even many)cycles of an outline before beginning to write text;writing many versions of the full text of a paper is slow.o而大部份思考是用在整理而大部份思考是用在整理和分析数据。在动笔前，和分析数据。在动笔前，详细讨论几遍写作提纲会详细讨论几遍写作提纲会提高写作效率；写很多遍提高写作效率；写很多遍正文反倒很慢。正文反倒很慢。The reason for outlines.为什么要写提纲？为什么要写提纲？oAll the writing that I do-papers,reports,proposals(and,of course,slides for seminars)-I do from outlines.I urge you to learn how to use them as well.o我写的所有文章，包我写的所有文章，包括论文，报告，括论文，报告，建议建议（当然还有讨论会的（当然还有讨论会的胶片）都从提纲开始。胶片）都从提纲开始。我也希望你们能学会我也希望你们能学会使用它。使用它。The reason for outlines.为什么要写提纲？为什么要写提纲？How should you construct an outline?How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oThe classical approach is to start with a blank piece of paper,and write down,in any order,all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper.o最经典的方法就是找最经典的方法就是找一页空白的纸，以任一页空白的纸，以任何顺序，写下与这篇何顺序，写下与这篇文章有关的所有重要文章有关的所有重要观点。观点。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oAsk yourself the obvious questions:“Why did I do this work?”“What does it mean?”“What hypothesis did I mean to test?”“What ones did I actually test?”“What were the results?”“Did the work yield a new method or compound?What?”“What measurements did I make?”“What compounds?How were they characterized?”o自问一些显而易见的问题：自问一些显而易见的问题：为什么我要做这项工作？为什么我要做这项工作？它意味着什么它意味着什么?我要验证我要验证哪些假设哪些假设?我究竟验证了我究竟验证了哪些假设？哪些假设？结果如何？结果如何？这项工作产生了新方法或这项工作产生了新方法或新物质吗？都是什么？我新物质吗？都是什么？我都做了那些测试？什么化都做了那些测试？什么化合物？合物？它们是如何表征的它们是如何表征的？How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oSketch possible equations,figures,and schemes.It is essential to try to get the major ideas written down.If you start the research to test one hypothesis,and decide,when you see what you have,that the data really seem to test some other hypothesis better,dont worry.o展示相关的方程，图表和展示相关的方程，图表和示意图。试着写出主要的示意图。试着写出主要的观点。如果你的研究开始观点。如果你的研究开始是为证实一个假设，然而是为证实一个假设，然而当你发现你有的数据仿佛当你发现你有的数据仿佛真的可以更好地验证其它真的可以更好地验证其它的假设时，你也不必担心。的假设时，你也不必担心。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oWrite them both down,and pick the best combinations of hypotheses,objectives and data.Often the objectives of a paper when it is finished are different from those used to justify starting the work.Much of good science is opportunistic and revisionist.o把它们两者都写出来，去把它们两者都写出来，去选择假设，目的和数据的选择假设，目的和数据的最佳组合。时常，当一篇最佳组合。时常，当一篇文章完成时，它的目的和文章完成时，它的目的和开始时是不同的。许多好开始时是不同的。许多好的科学来自机遇和反复修的科学来自机遇和反复修正。正。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oWhen you have written down what you can,start with another piece of paper and try to organize the jumble of the first one.Sort all of your ideas into three major heaps(A-C).o当你已经写下你能写当你已经写下你能写的，再拿出一页纸，的，再拿出一页纸，试着草拟一份提纲。试着草拟一份提纲。将你的观点分成三大将你的观点分成三大类（见类（见A,B,CA,B,C）oA)Introduction Why did I do the work?What were the central motivations and hypotheses?oA A）引言）引言 为什么我要做这件工为什么我要做这件工作，主要的目的和假作，主要的目的和假设是什么？设是什么？How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oB)Results and Discussion What were the results?How were compounds made and characterized?What was measured?oB B）结果和讨论）结果和讨论 结果是什么？化合物是结果是什么？化合物是怎样合成与表征的？测怎样合成与表征的？测试方法是什么？试方法是什么？How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oC)Conclusions What does it all mean?What hypotheses were proved or disproved?What did I learn?Why does it make a difference?oC C）结论）结论 所有这一切意味着什所有这一切意味着什么？证实或否定了什么？证实或否定了什么假设？我学到了什么假设？我学到了什么？结果为什么与众么？结果为什么与众不同？不同？How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oNext,take each of these sections,and organize it on yet finer scale.Concentrate on organizing the data.Construct figures,tables,and schemes to present the data as clearly and compactly as possible.o接下来，接下来，把每一部分把每一部分再仔细组织。尤其是再仔细组织。尤其是要集中整理数据。要要集中整理数据。要尽可能把数据以清晰、尽可能把数据以清晰、紧凑的图表来展示。紧凑的图表来展示。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oThis process can be slow-I may sketch a figure 5-10 times in different ways,trying to decide how it is most clear(and looks best aesthetically).o这个过程也许会慢些。这个过程也许会慢些。我可能要用我可能要用5-105-10次，次，而且是以不同的方式，而且是以不同的方式，来构思一张图，以便来构思一张图，以便决定怎样它才最清楚决定怎样它才最清楚（而且看上去更加美（而且看上去更加美观）。观）。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oFinally,put everythingoutline of sections,tables,sketches of figures,equations-in good order.o最后，把所有这些最后，把所有这些内容的提纲、表格、内容的提纲、表格、草图、方程式，排好草图、方程式，排好顺序。顺序。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oWhen you are satisfied that you have included all the data(or that you know what additional data you intend to collect),and have a plausible organization,give the outline to me.o当你已经囊括了所有当你已经囊括了所有的数据（或者你明确的数据（或者你明确知道你还需要收集哪知道你还需要收集哪些额外的数据），有些额外的数据），有了一个合理的构架，了一个合理的构架，你对这些都感到满意你对这些都感到满意时，将大纲交给我。时，将大纲交给我。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oSimply indicate where missing data will go,how you think(hypothesize)they will look,and how you will interpret them if your hypothesis is correct.I will take this outline,add my opinions,suggest changes,and return it to you.o简要地标明哪些地方还缺简要地标明哪些地方还缺数据，你认为（或推测）数据，你认为（或推测）这些数据大概是什么样。这些数据大概是什么样。如果你的推测是正确的，如果你的推测是正确的，你将如何去解释它。拿到你将如何去解释它。拿到你的大纲后，我将把我的你的大纲后，我将把我的观点，建议反馈给你。观点，建议反馈给你。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oIt usually takes 4-5 repeated attempts(often with additional experiments)to agree on an outline.When we have agreed,the data are usually in(or close to)final form(that is,the tables,figures,etc.,in the outline will be the tables,figures,in the paper.)o一般，我们需要四或五个一般，我们需要四或五个来回才能达成一致（中间来回才能达成一致（中间经常还需要补做一些实验）经常还需要补做一些实验）。在我们的意见一致后，。在我们的意见一致后，所有的数据通常以最终所有的数据通常以最终（或接近最终的）形式确（或接近最终的）形式确定下来（也就是说，在提定下来（也就是说，在提纲中的表格，图表等最终纲中的表格，图表等最终将成为文章中的表格，图将成为文章中的表格，图表）。表）。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oYou can then start writing,with some assurance that much of your prose will be used.o然后，你就可以开始然后，你就可以开始动笔写，注意你写的动笔写，注意你写的这些大多将用于正文。这些大多将用于正文。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oThe key to efficient use of your and my time is that we start exchanging outlines and proposals as early in a project as possible.Do not,under any circumstances,wait until the collection of data is“complete”before starting to write an outline.o合理使用我们的时间合理使用我们的时间的关键是，我们应尽的关键是，我们应尽可能早地交换提纲和可能早地交换提纲和建议。在任何情况下，建议。在任何情况下，都不要等到你已经收都不要等到你已经收集集“全全”了数据之后了数据之后才开始动笔写提纲。才开始动笔写提纲。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oNo project is ever complete,and it saves enormous effort and much time to propose a plausible paper and outline as soon as you see the basic structure of a project.o研究是永无止境的。研究是永无止境的。当你看到你的结果初当你看到你的结果初具雏形时，就要立即具雏形时，就要立即开始准备构思文章和开始准备构思文章和提纲，这将节省你很提纲，这将节省你很多的精力和时间。多的精力和时间。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？oEven if we decide to do significant additional work before seriously organizing a paper,the effort of writing an outline will have helped to guide the research.o即便在认真组织成文即便在认真组织成文前，我们已经决定补前，我们已经决定补做重要的其他实验，做重要的其他实验，试着写一个提纲也一试着写一个提纲也一定对研究有指导意义。定对研究有指导意义。How should you construct an outline?你应该如何起草你的提要？你应该如何起草你的提要？What should an outline contain?oTitle:oAuthors:oAbstract:Do not write an abstract.That can be done when the paper is complete.o标题：标题：o作者：作者：o摘要：不要着急写摘摘要：不要着急写摘要，可以等文章写完要，可以等文章写完后再写。后再写。What should an outline contain?提纲需要包括哪些内容？提纲需要包括哪些内容？IntroductionoThe first paragraph or two should be written out completely.Pay particular attention to the opening sentence.Ideally,it should state concisely the objective of the work,and indicate why this objective is important.o文章的第文章的第1 1或或2 2段应该段应该完全用来写引言。要完全用来写引言。要特别注意写好开头一特别注意写好开头一句话。最好是简洁地句话。最好是简洁地陈述工作的目的，并陈述工作的目的，并指明该工作为什么重指明该工作为什么重要。要。Introduction 引言引言 Introduction 引言引言oIn general,the Introduction should have these elements:The objectives of the work.The justification for these objectives:Why is the work important?Background:Who else has done what?How?What have we done previously?Guidance to the reader.What should the reader watch for in the paper?What are the interesting high points?What strategy did we use?o一般而言，引言应该包含以一般而言，引言应该包含以下几个要素：下几个要素：工作目的。工作目的。对工作目的评价：该工作为对工作目的评价：该工作为什么很重要？什么很重要？工作背景：谁做了什么工作工作背景：谁做了什么工作？做得怎么样？以前我们做？做得怎么样？以前我们做了哪些工作？了哪些工作？导读：读者应该注意该文章导读：读者应该注意该文章的哪些方面？有意义的要点的哪些方面？有意义的要点有哪些？我们用到了哪些策有哪些？我们用到了哪些策略？略？Introduction 引言引言oSummary conclusion.What should the reader expect as conclusion?In advanced versions of the outline,you should also include all the sections that will go in the Experimental section(at this point,just as paragraph subheadings).o总结结论。读者期望什么总结结论。读者期望什么样的结论呢？在提纲的前样的结论呢？在提纲的前几个版本中，你应该包括几个版本中，你应该包括实验部分中涉及到的所有实验部分中涉及到的所有内容。（在这一点上，就内容。（在这一点上，就像是段落的副标题）。像是段落的副标题）。Results and Discussion Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论 oThe results and discussion are usually combined.This section should be organized according to major topics.The separate parts should have subheadings in boldface to make this organization clear,and to help the reader scan through the final text to find the parts that interest him or her.o通常，结论和讨论是合在通常，结论和讨论是合在一起的。这一部分应根据一起的。这一部分应根据主题来进行组织。分段应主题来进行组织。分段应有黑体字的副标题，目的有黑体字的副标题，目的是使文章更有条理，能帮是使文章更有条理，能帮助读者清楚地通览全文，助读者清楚地通览全文，并找到他们感兴趣的内容。并找到他们感兴趣的内容。Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论oThe following list includes examples of the phrases that might plausibly serve as section headings:oSynthesis of Alkane Thiols oCharacterization of Monolayers oAbsolute Configuration of the Vicinal Diol Unit o下面列举一些适合作副标下面列举一些适合作副标题的短语：题的短语：o烷基硫醇的合成烷基硫醇的合成 o单层膜的表征单层膜的表征 o邻二醇单元的绝对构像邻二醇单元的绝对构像 Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论oHysteresis Correlates with Roughness of the Surface oDependence of the Rate Constant on Temperature oThe Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with the Polarity of the Solvent o滞后现象与表面粗糙滞后现象与表面粗糙度的关系度的关系 o温度对速率常数的影温度对速率常数的影响响 o自交换速率随溶剂极自交换速率随溶剂极化度而降低化度而降低 Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论oTry to make these section headings as specific and information-rich as possible.For example,the phrase“The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with The Polarity of The Solvent”is obviously longer than“Measurement of Rates,”but much more useful to the reader.In general,try to cover the major common points:o尽可能使副标题具体并且尽可能使副标题具体并且内容丰富。例如，内容丰富。例如，“The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with The Polarity of The Solvent”这个短语明显比这个短语明显比“Measurement of Rates”长，但是对读者更有帮助。长，但是对读者更有帮助。一般来说，尽量概括该段一般来说，尽量概括该段落的共同点。落的共同点。Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论oSynthesis of starting materialsoCharacterization of products oMethods of characterizationoMethods of measurement oResults(rate constants,contact angles,whatever)o初始材料的合成初始材料的合成 o产物的表征产物的表征 o表征方法表征方法 o测量方法测量方法o结果（速率常数，接触角，结果（速率常数，接触角，其它）其它）Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论oIn the outline,do not write any significant amount of text,but get all the data in their proper place:any text should simply indicate what will go in that section.oSection HeadingsoFigures(with captions)oSchemes(with captions and footnotes)oEquationsoTables(correctly formatted)o在提纲中，不要罗列大量在提纲中，不要罗列大量的正文内容，而是要给出的正文内容，而是要给出数据应放的合适位置：任数据应放的合适位置：任何正文应该简明地指出那何正文应该简明地指出那段中包括了什么数据。段中包括了什么数据。o副标题副标题o图表（附说明）图表（附说明）o示意图（附说明和注解）示意图（附说明和注解）o方程方程o表格（正确格式化的）表格（正确格式化的）Results and Discussion 结果和讨论结果和讨论oRemember to think of a paper as a collection of experimental results,summarized as cl