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A Course on Linguistics A Course on Linguistics for Students of Englishfor Students of English-Zhou Yongping-Zhou Yongping School of Foreign Studies,JXUFESchool of Foreign Studies,JXUFE第1页The Requirements for this coursevClassattendancevClassroomdiscussionvFulfillmentoftheassignmentvExamination第2页Questionsfordiscussionv1.DoyoulikeChinese?DoyoulikeEnglish?Doyoulikelanguage?v2.Doyouknowwhytherearesomanydifferentlanguagesintheworld?(Originoflanguage)v3.Imagine,ifyoucannotspeakanylanguage,whatwouldhappentoyou?Ifallthepeoplecannotspeakanylanguage,whatwouldhappentotheworld?v4.Doyouwanttolearnlanguage?Doyouwanttostudylanguage?Whatislanguage?(Howwouldyoudefinelanguagebyasentence?)第3页The Goals for this Course(why study language?)vTogetascientificviewonlanguage;vTounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;vTounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication;vToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.第4页Reference Booksv戴炜栋，何兆熊，()，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社。v胡壮麟，()，语言学教程，北京大学出版社。v刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社。第5页Chapter 1.Introduction第6页1.What is language?第7页Language can meanvwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)vthewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,Luxunslanguage)vaparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)vtheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)vthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)vatoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)vasetofrules.(rule-governed)第8页Sapirs definition(1921)v“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”第9页Halls definition(1968)vLanguageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”第10页Chomskys definition(1957)v“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”第11页Language can be generally defined asasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.第12页Language is a systemvSystematic-rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.第13页Language is arbitraryvArbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.第14页Language is symbolic in naturevSymbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-Shakespeare第15页Language is primarily vocalvVocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.第16页Language is humanspecific vHuman-specific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.第17页2.The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission第18页Arbitrariness-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.vOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang)vSomecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy第19页Productivity/creativity-Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.vAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.vThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires第20页Duality(double articulation)vLowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)vHigherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)vAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.第21页Displacement-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.vAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearvThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.第22页Cultural transmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).vAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.vAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.vThestoryofawolfchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.第23页3.Functions of languagevPhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.vDirective:getthehearertodosomething.vInformative:giveinformationaboutfacts.vInterrogative:getinformationfromothers.vExpressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.vEvocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)vPerformative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.第24页4.The origin of languagev1)Thedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.第25页第26页vTheTowerofBabel巴比塔Noahhadthreesons-Shen,Hamandjapeth,whohadmanychildren,andthesechildrenhadchildren,forGodcommandedthemtomultiply.Theyalllivedtogether,andthewholeearthspokeonelanguage.Theylivedinonearea,andstartedtobuildacitywithatower.第27页v“withitstopintheheavens.lestwebescatteredabroaduponthefaceoftheEarth.“Theycouldreachheaven,theycouldunderstandallthesecretsoftheworld.vGodcamedowntoseewhattheydidandsaid:Theyareonepeopleandhaveonelanguage,andnothingwillbewithholdenfromthemwhichtheypurposetodo.SoGodsaid,Come,letusgodownandconfoundtheirspeech.AndsoGodscatteredthemuponthefaceoftheEarth,andconfusedtheirlanguages,andtheyleftoffbuildingthecity,whichwascalledBabelbecauseGodthereconfoundedthelanguageofalltheEarth.(Genesis11:5-8).ThestoryofthetowerofBabelexplainstheoriginsofthemultiplicityoflanguagesReadmore:http:/ is linguistics?-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.第31页6.Four principles of linguistic studiesvExhaustiveness/adequacyvConsistencyvEconomyvObjectivity第32页7.The scope or major branches of linguisticsvTheoreticallinguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.SemanticsvUseoflinguistics1.Appliedlinguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Psycholinguistics第33页Theoretical linguisticsvPhonetics-speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.vPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesvMorphology-theformofwordsvSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.vSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics)第34页Use of linguisticsvAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingvSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusevPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessvStylistics-linguisticandliterature第35页Some other applications vAnthropologicallinguisticsvNeurolinguisticsvComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation)第36页8.Some important distinctions in linguistics 第37页Descriptive vs prescriptivevDescriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)vPrescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)第38页Synchronic vs diachronicvSynchronicstudy-descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)vDiachronicstudy-descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)第39页Speech vs writingvSpeech-primarymediumoflanguagevWriting-laterdeveloped第40页Langue vs parole(F.de Saussure)vLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.vParole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.vSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.第41页Competence and performance(Chomsky)vCompetence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagevPerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationvChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.第42页Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsvTraditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkvModernlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework第43页Chapter 2 PhonologyvLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.第44页Phonetics -Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop.第45页Three branches of phonetics vArticulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”vAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”vAcousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.第46页Articulatory phonetics 第47页Speech organs:three important areas Pharyngeal cavity-the throat;The oral cavity-the mouth;Nasal cavity-the nose.第48页The diagram of speech organs1.Lips2.Teeth3.Teethridge(alveolar)4.Hardpalate5.Softpalate(velum)6.Uvula7.Tipoftongue8.Bladeoftongue9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords11.Pharyngealcavity12.Nasalcavity第49页Orthographic representation of speech sounds-AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.vBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearl,pitvNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedp第50页Some major articulatory variables-dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:vVoicing-voiced&voicelessvNasality-nasal&non-nasalvAspiration-aspirated&unaspirated第51页Classification of English speech sounds-Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:vVowelsvConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.第52页Classification of consonants-Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:vThemannerofarticulationvTheplaceofarticulation第53页The manner of articulationvstops/plosives:p,b,t,d,k,g;vfricatives:f,v,s,z,W,T,F,V,h;vaffricates:tF,dV;vliquids:l(lateral),r;vnasals:m,n,N;vglides/semivowels:w,j.第54页The place of articulationvbilabial:p,b,m,w;vlabiodental:f,v;vdental:W,T;valveolar:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;vpalatal:F,V,tF,dV,j;vvelar:k,g,N;vglottal:h.第55页The place of articulation1.Bilabial;2.Labiodental;3.Dentalorinterdental;4.Alveolar;5.Palatoalveolar;6.Palatal;7.Velar;8.Uvular;9.Glottal.第56页The description of English consonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelar GlottalStopsorplosivesVLptkVDbdgFrica-tivesVLf W sF hVDvT zV Affri-catesVL(tF)tFVD(dV)dVNasalsVDmnN LiquidsVDl,rGlidesVDwj 第57页Classification of vowels-Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:vMonophthongsorpure/singlevowelsvDiphthongsorglidingvowels第58页Monophthongs or pure/single vowels-According to which part of the tongue is heldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:vfrontvowels:I:,I,e,Z,A,B;vcentralvowels:E:,E,Q;vbackvowels:u:,u,C:,C,B:.第59页According to the openness of the mouth vClose:I:,I,u:,u.vSemi-close:e,E:;vSemi-open:E,C;vOpen:A,B,C,B:,Q;第60页The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:第61页According to the shape of the lips orthe degree of lip rounding vrounded:u:,u,C:,C;vunrounded:I:,I,e,Z,A,B,E:,E,Q,B:.第62页According to the length of the vowels vlong:I:,E:,u:,C:,B:vshort:I,e,Z,A,E,Q,B,u,C.第63页Diphthongs/gliding vowels vei,ai,aU,EU,Ri,iE,ZE,UE.第64页Exercises:underline the words that begin with a sound as required.vAbilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladvAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodvLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatvAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickvApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipvAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryevAglide:onewaryolkrush第65页Underline the words that end with a sound as required:vAfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessagevAnasaltrainbangleaflimbvAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipvAnaffricate:racksuchridgebooze第66页Underline the words that contain the sound as required:vAcentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordvAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookvAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkvAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather第67页Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither第68页PhonologyvPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.第69页Phonetics&phonologyvBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.vPhoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.vPhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.第70页Phone,phoneme,allophone第71页PhonevAphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.bI:t&bIt,spIt&spIt.第72页PhonemevAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticular sound,but it is represented by acertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpIt,tIpandspIt.第73页AllophonevAllophones-the phones that can represent aphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.第74页Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair.第75页Phonemic contrastvPhonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.第76页Complementary distributionvComplementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincom
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