《汉英语言对比》PPT课件.ppt

汉英语言对比PPT课件Teaching objectives：使学生了解汉英两种语言在词汇、句子和语体风格方面的异同Teaching Focus：汉英两种语言在词汇、句子和语体风格方面的异同Time Allocation：90 minutes Teaching Methods and Strategies:teacher presentation and class discussion Teaching Procedures1.1.汉英谱系、类型、文字、汉英谱系、类型、文字、语音对比语音对比2.2.汉英词汇的对比汉英词汇的对比3.3.汉英句子对比汉英句子对比4.4.汉英语体风格对比汉英语体风格对比1.1.汉英谱系、类型、文字、语音汉英谱系、类型、文字、语音对比对比1.1 谱系(language family)汉语-汉藏语系 Sino-Tibetan 英语-印欧语系 Indo-European1.2 文字系统文字系统(writing system)汉语:表意文字、表意音文字 （ideographic-oriented syllabic script）(ideo-phonographic)(ideographic)1)不带表音成分:象形(pictograph)指事(indicative character)会意(associative character)2)带表音成分:形声字英语-拼音文字(alphabetic)1.3 语音语音(phonetics)汉语是声调语言 (tone language)英语是语调语言 (intonation language)2.2.汉英词汇的对比汉英词汇的对比2.1 词语语义对比词语语义对比1.汉语:“历史悠久”英语:“融汇百川”2.汉英词汇对应的依据:客观世界大体相同 人的生理结构一样3.汉英词汇不对应的原因:文化(自然环境、社会历史、思维方式、宗教信仰、风俗习惯等）表现为：词汇空缺、词汇冲突 完全对应：1、山：、山：hill(小山，丘陵),mountain(高山；山岳，山脉)2、鸡：、鸡：hen(母鸡),chick(小鸡),cock(公鸡),rooster(雄禽)部分对应：A 1、青:green,blue 2、借:lend(借给),borrow(借入)3、兔:hare(野兔),rabbit(家兔)4、鼠:mouse(耗子),rat(老鼠)5、乌鸦:rayen(渡乌),crow(乌鸦)B 6、你，您 you 7、江，河 river 8、父，母 parent 9、兄，弟 brother 10、枪，炮 gun 11、嫁，娶 marry 12、叔，伯 uncleExercises:舅舅从桌上把花瓶拿去了。Mothers brother has taken the vase away from the table.我属蛇。I was born in the Chinese lunar year of the snake.2.2词汇的语法对比词汇的语法对比同同:1.词类数量大致相等,类别基本对应。2.名词、动词、形容词三大类开放性词类在词汇中占较大比重。汉语：实词（名词、动词、形容词、代词、副词、数词和量词）虚词（连词、介词、助词、叹词）英语：实词（Noun,Verb,Adjective,Adverb,Numeral,Pronoun)虚词（Preposition,Conjunction,Article,Interjection)异异:1.从词类划分比较从词类划分比较:汉语没有冠词,英语没有量词 复杂而有趣的量词复杂而有趣的量词一本书、两枝笔、三扇窗、四把锁、五只鸡一本书、两枝笔、三扇窗、四把锁、五只鸡 一炷香、一抔土、一尾鱼、一床被、一叶小一炷香、一抔土、一尾鱼、一床被、一叶小舟、一顶帽子、一方砚台、一出戏、一把锁、舟、一顶帽子、一方砚台、一出戏、一把锁、一眼井、一笔钱、两撇胡子、一椽破屋一眼井、一笔钱、两撇胡子、一椽破屋一弯新月、一轮明月、一缕炊烟、一抹斜阳、一弯新月、一轮明月、一缕炊烟、一抹斜阳、一带远山、一江春水、一派风光、一树梅花、一带远山、一江春水、一派风光、一树梅花、一川烟草、一袭花香、一泓清泉、一垄土地、一川烟草、一袭花香、一泓清泉、一垄土地、一缕乡愁一缕乡愁一团和气、一丝希望、一门心思一团和气、一丝希望、一门心思2.从数量上比较从数量上比较:副词:汉语中少,为虚词 英语中多,为实词 介词:汉语中少,30个左右 英语中多,数不胜数 (包括简单介词、复合介词、短语 介词）连词：有类似不同3.从词类使用的频率上分析从词类使用的频率上分析 *汉语多用动词而英语多用名词汉语多用动词而英语多用名词 *英语中代词、介词、连词的使用频率高英语中代词、介词、连词的使用频率高 *汉语的数词使用得多汉语的数词使用得多,因为汉语的成语及缩因为汉语的成语及缩略语靠数词构成略语靠数词构成 *汉语的量词使用频率高汉语的量词使用频率高,正如英语的冠词一正如英语的冠词一样样2.3 汉英词类划分的理据比较及对汉英词类划分的理据比较及对汉译英的意义汉译英的意义1.汉英词类划分的理据汉英词类划分的理据 汉语汉语词类的划分主要依据词义，即词义的实与虚、动与静、具体与抽象等；英语英语的此类划分依据是语法，此类与句子成分有严格的对应关系，词义倒在其次。结果结果:汉英词类名同实异,同名异质 语言现实中语言现实中:形异实同 因此因此:转类法2.对汉英翻译的意义对汉英翻译的意义(启示）启示）*由于汉英词汇意义存在不对应现象由于汉英词汇意义存在不对应现象,翻译翻译时应通过各种手段对译入语加以补充或限定时应通过各种手段对译入语加以补充或限定,技巧上表现为词语的增减、阐释、借用、音技巧上表现为词语的增减、阐释、借用、音译等手段的运用，如：译等手段的运用，如：我进去看了，只记得门警是瑞士兵士，穿着我进去看了，只记得门警是瑞士兵士，穿着黄色制服，黄色制服，别的没有印象了别的没有印象了。I went there to have a look.All I remember now is that the guards at the entrance were Swiss soldiers in yellow uniforms.中国有中国有12亿多人口，陆地自然资源人均占有量低于世亿多人口，陆地自然资源人均占有量低于世界平均界平均水平水平。China has a population of more than 1.2 billion,and its land natural resources per capita are lower than the worlds average.1998年是联合国确定的国际海洋年，中国政府愿借此年是联合国确定的国际海洋年，中国政府愿借此机会介绍中国海洋事业的发展情况。机会介绍中国海洋事业的发展情况。The year 1998 has been designated by the United Nations as International Ocean Year,and on this occasion the Chinese Government would like to introduce the progress of Chinas work in this particular field to the world.长得好看的人用不着长得好看的人用不着浓妆艳抹浓妆艳抹。Physically attractive people dont need heavy make-up.（牲畜的）总（牲畜的）总数；头数数；头数命名；命名；指示指示*由于词汇使用频率不对应,翻译是时不能 拘泥与字面的对应,而应该以整体意义为 重,灵活变通，如：前门驱虎，后门进狼。Fend off one danger only to fall prey to another.抵挡，抵挡，防御防御被捕食被捕食的动物的动物*由于词类的性质不同由于词类的性质不同,词类转换便成词类转换便成了汉英翻译中经常使用的技巧了汉英翻译中经常使用的技巧.英语中词类转换,一词兼几 类的现象比较普遍“You can happy your friends,malice or foot your enemy,or fall an axe on his neck.”-Shakespeare怨恨；怨恨；恶意恶意Who chaired the meetingIt can seat 1000 people.We should shoulder these responsibilities.I hope we can room together.They breakfasted at the guesthouse.A.代词的使用代词的使用朱德想起朱德想起自己的年龄自己的年龄，他已三十六岁，他已三十六岁.Chu Teh remembered his age.He was thirty-six.朱德朱德顾不得拉过的椅子，顾不得拉过的椅子，端端正正地站在这个比端端正正地站在这个比他年轻十几岁的青年面前，用平衡的语调说明自他年轻十几岁的青年面前，用平衡的语调说明自己的身份己的身份.Ignoring the chair offered him,Chu Teh stood squarely before this youth more then ten years his junior and in a level voice told him who he was.B.形容词和副词的转换形容词和副词的转换周恩来周恩来举止优雅，待人体贴举止优雅，待人体贴.Chou was a quiet and thoughtful man.她她满意地满意地走了。走了。She went away with satisfaction.She went away satisfied.他对她的行为有些他对她的行为有些怀疑怀疑。He was suspicious of her behaviour.Her behaviour aroused his suspicion.He suspected her behaviour.练习：按照要求翻译下列句子练习：按照要求翻译下列句子1、我们对这件事当然有发言权。（、我们对这件事当然有发言权。（matter）Of course we have a say in this matter.2、真是想不到的事。（、真是想不到的事。（surprise）What a surprise!3、这本新书的出版是今年文化界的大事。、这本新书的出版是今年文化界的大事。(event)The new book was the cultural event of the year.4、各族人民的代表共聚一堂，商讨国家大事。、各族人民的代表共聚一堂，商讨国家大事。(affairs)Representatives from different nationalities gather in the same hall to discuss affairs of the state.5、这绝不是轻而易举的事。、这绝不是轻而易举的事。(job)Its certainly no easy job.6、从政治思想上关心学生是教师份内的事。、从政治思想上关心学生是教师份内的事。(duty)Its the teachers duty to be concerned about the students ideology.7、我已把事情讲清楚了。、我已把事情讲清楚了。(case)Iv already put the case clear.8、我可以举出好几件事来证明。、我可以举出好几件事来证明。(instance)I can cite quite a few instances to illustrate it.9、这不是开玩笑的事儿。、这不是开玩笑的事儿。(joke)This is no joke.10、那是件普通小事。、那是件普通小事。(incident)This is an ordinary incident.3.3.汉英句子对比汉英句子对比3.1 汉英语法对比汉英语法对比汉语语法呈隐含性 (covertness)英语语法呈外显性 (overtness)3.2 汉英句法对比汉英句法对比汉语句子汉语句子:(parataxis)语义型或意合型语义型或意合型 依仗意义，即内在的逻辑关系组织语言的依仗意义，即内在的逻辑关系组织语言的手段。手段。“以意统形以意统形”英语句子英语句子:(hypotaxis）语法型或形合型语法型或形合型 依仗形式（包括词的形态变化，词汇的衔依仗形式（包括词的形态变化，词汇的衔接等）将语言符号由接等）将语言符号由“散散”（个体的词）到（个体的词）到“集集”（词组乃至语篇）的语言组织手段（词组乃至语篇）的语言组织手段 -王力中国语法理论王力中国语法理论比较下例原言语及译文中的标点使用：比较下例原言语及译文中的标点使用：正在热闹哄哄的时节，只见那后台里，又出来一位姑正在热闹哄哄的时节，只见那后台里，又出来一位姑娘，（。）年纪约十八九岁，装束与前一个毫无分别，娘，（。）年纪约十八九岁，装束与前一个毫无分别，（。）瓜子脸儿，白净面皮，（。）相貌不过中人之（。）瓜子脸儿，白净面皮，（。）相貌不过中人之姿，（。）只觉得秀而不媚，清而不寒。姿，（。）只觉得秀而不媚，清而不寒。（刘（刘鹗鹗老残游记老残游记第二回）第二回）Amidst the feverish bustling,there appeared on the stage a girl about eighteen or nineteen years old,dressed up just like the former.Her face was shaped like melon-seed.Her beauty was above the average woman-charming but not coquettish,and a clarity of complexion but not coldness.在在中中喧闹喧闹迷人的；娇媚的迷人的；娇媚的卖弄风情的卖弄风情的面色；面色；外观外观只有四婶，因为后来雇用的女工，大抵非懒即馋，或者馋而只有四婶，因为后来雇用的女工，大抵非懒即馋，或者馋而且懒，左右不如意，所以也还提起祥林嫂。且懒，左右不如意，所以也还提起祥林嫂。Only my aunt,because the maids taken on afterwards turned out to be lazy or greedy,or both,none of them satisfied her,still spoke of Xianglins Wife.My aunt was the only one who still spoke of Xianglins Wife.This was because most of the maids taken on afterwards turned out to be lazy or greedy,or both,none of them giving satisfaction.（杨宪益、戴乃迭译）杨宪益、戴乃迭译）3.3 现代英语的基本句型现代英语的基本句型 1)SV（主谓）2)SVO（主谓宾）3)SVC（主谓主补）4)SVA（主谓状）5 SVOD（主谓间宾直宾）6)SVOC（主谓宾宾补）7)SVOA（主谓宾状）英语句子的谓语只有动词才能充当。作谓语的动词对句子其他成分的形式和句子的结构有很大的影响。汉语的谓语也是句子中非常重要的成分，但是汉语的谓语除了用动词充当，还可以用形容词、名词或其他词语充当。Pay Attention to the Following Sentences:1、看样子要变天了。It seems the weather is changing.2、当时我在北京。I was in Beijing at the time.3、是谁呀？是我。Who is it Its me.4、叶子黄了。The leaves turned brown.5、不行！It wont do!3.4 汉英语言特征比较汉英语言特征比较汉语：汉语：主题显著的语言(topic-prominent language),采用主题-述题(topic-comment)的句式 “话语-说明结构”汉语句子建立在意念主轴(thought-pivot)上英语：英语：主语显著的语言(subject-prominent language),几乎都采用主语-谓语(subject-predicate)的句式 “主语-谓语结构”英语句子建立在形式(或主谓)主轴(form-pivot)上请分析下列例句中的请分析下列例句中的“话题话题-说明说明”部分是如何转化为部分是如何转化为英语的英语的“主语主语-谓语谓语”结构的：结构的：1、有个叫毛满珠的哑巴姑娘，翻过几重山来找王斌，痛苦地做着、有个叫毛满珠的哑巴姑娘，翻过几重山来找王斌，痛苦地做着各种手势，要求得到帮助。各种手势，要求得到帮助。There was a dumb girl called Mao Manzhu,who travelled over ranges of mountains to come to Wang Bin.With various painful gestures,she begged for Wangs help.2、他五岁时候，生了一场伤寒，变成了聋子。、他五岁时候，生了一场伤寒，变成了聋子。He became deaf at five after an attack of typhoid fever.3、老拴正在专心走路，忽然吃了一惊，远远地看见一条丁字街，、老拴正在专心走路，忽然吃了一惊，远远地看见一条丁字街，明明白白横着。他便退了几步，寻到一家关着门的铺子，蹩进檐明明白白横着。他便退了几步，寻到一家关着门的铺子，蹩进檐下，停住了。（鲁迅下，停住了。（鲁迅药）药）Absorbed in his walking,Old Shuan was startled when he saw the crossroad lying distantly ahead of him.He walked back a few steps to stand under the eaves of a shop in front of its closed door.伤寒病伤寒病屋檐屋檐3.5 译文主语的选择译文主语的选择原文：这件事你不用操心。译文：1.This you dont need to worry.2.You dont need to worry about this.3.This is not something you need to worry about.4.It is unnecessary for you to worry about this.5.There is no need to worry about this.我的头疼的要命。My head aches badly.My head is killing me.I have a terrible headache.I have a splitting headache.I have a migraine.Assignment:Translate the underlined part of the following text into English.Write your translation on ANSWER SHEET THREE.暮色中，河湾里落满云霞，与天际的颜色混合一起，分不清哪是流云哪是水湾。也就在这一幅绚烂的图画旁边，在河湾之畔，一群羊正在低头觅食。它们几乎没有一个顾得上抬起头来，看一眼这美丽的黄昏。也许它们要抓紧时间，在即将回家的最后一刻再次咀嚼。这是黄河滩上的一幕。牧羊人不见了，他不知在何处歇息。只有这些美生灵自由自在地享受着这个黄昏。这儿水草肥美，让它们长得肥滚滚的，像些胖娃娃。如果走近了，会发现它们那可爱的神情，洁白的牙齿，那丰富而单纯的表情。如果稍稍长久一点端详这张张面庞，还会生出无限的怜悯。(07年专八汉译英)参考译文：Beside this picture with profusions of colors,a group of sheep are lowing their heads,eating by the river bank.Hardly would none of them spare some time to raise their eyes to have a glance at the beautiful dusk.They are,perhaps,taking use of every minute to enjoy their last chew before being driven home.This is a picture of the Yellow River bank,in which the shepherd disappears,and no one knows where he is resting himself.Only the sheep,however,as free creatures,are joyfully appreciating the dusk.The exuberant water plants have nourished the sheep,making them grow as fat as balls.When approaching near,you would find their lily-white teeth and a variety of innocent facial impressions.丰富；充沛丰富；充沛咀嚼咀嚼繁茂的；繁茂的；充沛的充沛的滋养滋养3.6 汉英句子结构比较汉英句子结构比较A.汉语：“板块型”或“竹节型”汉语句子往往是句子较短,结构紧凑,好似“万倾碧波层层推进”英语:“多枝共干型”或“葡萄串型”英语句子如“老树参天,枝杈横生”,句子长,插入成分多,形成复杂嵌套结构.请看下列例句：请看下列例句：1、话说天下大势，分久必合，合久必分。、话说天下大势，分久必合，合久必分。They say the momentum of history was ever thus:the empire,long divided,must unite;long united,must divide.2、他们进行挑衅活动，制造紧张局势，、他们进行挑衅活动，制造紧张局势，必须马上停止。必须马上停止。They must stop all their provocations at once,which create tensions.趋势趋势挑拨；挑起挑拨；挑起（事端）（事端）练习：练习：下面的句子在翻译时需要在英文句中增加表示下面的句子在翻译时需要在英文句中增加表示逻辑关系的词语，使原文隐含的语义关系显现出来。逻辑关系的词语，使原文隐含的语义关系显现出来。试译：试译：1、跑得了和尚跑不了庙。、跑得了和尚跑不了庙。The monk may run away,but the temple wont run with him.2、你死了我去当和尚。、你死了我去当和尚。If you died,I would go and become a monk.3、他不去我去。、他不去我去。I would like to go if he wouldnt go.4、他不去我也去。、他不去我也去。Id go there even if he wouldnt go with me.5、他不去我才去。、他不去我才去。Id go there only if he wont.6、知人知面不知心。、知人知面不知心。A mans face one can know,but not his heart.7、人穷志短。人穷志短。When a man is poor his ambition is not far-reaching.Poverty stifles ambition.8、人穷志不短。、人穷志不短。Though one is poor,he has high aspirations.One may be poor,but with lofty ideas.9、人有脸，树有皮。、人有脸，树有皮。The face is as important to a man as the bark to a tree.10、人不犯我，我不犯人。、人不犯我，我不犯人。We will not attack unless we are attacked.阻止；阻止；扑灭扑灭热望；热望；抱负抱负极高的；极高的；高贵的高贵的B.汉语：汉语：“左分支左分支”结构结构(left-branching)“后重心后重心”：重要信息放在后面。：重要信息放在后面。“狮子头狮子头”（头大尾小）（头大尾小）如：如：村东头的王大妈来了，受坏人欺骗的村民们也村东头的王大妈来了，受坏人欺骗的村民们也来了。来了。There came Aunt Wang who dwelt at the eastern end of the village,and also came the villagers who had been deceived by the scoundrel.定居；生活定居；生活在在之中之中欺骗；欺骗；欺瞒欺瞒恶棍；恶棍；无赖无赖英语：英语：“右分支右分支”结构结构(right-branching)“前重心前重心”：主要信息放在主句中，放在：主要信息放在主句中，放在 句首。前句首。前重后轻。重后轻。“孔雀尾孔雀尾”：头小尾大：头小尾大例如：去年他为了完成一个项目在实验室用计算机努力地干了十个月。He worked hard with a computer in the lab for ten months in order to complete a project last year练习：练习：1、我认为资金的问题是我们目前最大的困难。（用插入语）、我认为资金的问题是我们目前最大的困难。（用插入语）The short of fund,I think,is the biggest problem were facing at the present stage.2、朱彦夫虽然肢体残疾，但意志坚强，所以做出了常人都难以做、朱彦夫虽然肢体残疾，但意志坚强，所以做出了常人都难以做到的事情。（用关系从句）到的事情。（用关系从句）Zhu yanfu,handicapped as he is,has achieved with his strong will what a normal person would find difficult to accomplish.3、地球的周围是一层厚度莫测的空气。（用倒装句）、地球的周围是一层厚度莫测的空气。（用倒装句）Surrounding the earth is a layer of air of unknown thickness.4、她虽然年纪大了，可腿脚灵便、耳聪目明。（用简单句）、她虽然年纪大了，可腿脚灵便、耳聪目明。（用简单句）She is easy with movement and good with vision and hearing despite her great age.5、他在报上说这场罢工不好。（用被动式）、他在报上说这场罢工不好。（用被动式）He is quoted in the paper as saying that the strike was evil.6、孩子大哭起来，伤倒是没伤着，只是吓的。（、孩子大哭起来，伤倒是没伤着，只是吓的。（not so much）The child burst out crying.It was not so much that he was anyhow injured but that he was terribly frightened.7、若不是我抓住她，她就跌倒了。、若不是我抓住她，她就跌倒了。(but that)She would have fallen but that I had caught her.8、小孩子的鞋子很快就穿不进去了。（、小孩子的鞋子很快就穿不进去了。（outgrow）Small children outgrow their shoes at a fast rate.9、现在可以明了这种系统为什么称为、现在可以明了这种系统为什么称为“相位控制相位控制”）。（用形）。（用形式主语式主语it）It is evident now why this system is called phase control.10、年轻人顶着风，冒着雨，出去骑马。（用一个动词）、年轻人顶着风，冒着雨，出去骑马。（用一个动词）The young man went out,against the wind and through the rain,for a ride on horseback.phase control3.7 句子扩展模式句子扩展模式汉语：逆线性延伸 首开放性(open-beginning)尾封闭性(close-ending)英语：顺线性延伸 首封闭性(close-beginning)尾开放性(open-ending)例：汉语句首开放性（左分支）汉语句首开放性（左分支）手提电脑丢了。买的手提电脑丢了。上周六买的手提电脑丢了。小王上周六买的手提电脑丢了。刚当上经理的小王上周六买的手提电脑丢了。句首开放性（左分支）(2)对。不对。他不对。我认为他不对。我告诉过你我认为他不对。我明明告诉过你我认为他不对。我开会时明明告诉过你我认为他不对。我昨天开会时明明告诉过你我认为他不对。英语句尾开放性（右分支）He is reading.He is reading a book.He is reading a book written by Mark Twain.He is reading a book written by Mark Twain in the reading-room.He is reading a book written by Mark Twain in the reading-room on the second floor of our library.He is reading a book written by Mark Twain in the reading-room on the second floor of our library which has just opened.3.8 前重心与后重心前重心与后重心英语句子和汉语句子的重心一般都落在结果、结论、假设或事实上；但是重心的位置不同：英语句子一般是前重心；汉语句子一般是后重心。例如：例如：You need to fight for your point of view(句首重心句首重心)/when something happens that is counter to your values or threatens a project the organization supports在所发生的事情与你的价值观完全相反或者对你的机构所支持的项目有在所发生的事情与你的价值观完全相反或者对你的机构所支持的项目有威胁时威胁时,你就需要为你的观点而战。你就需要为你的观点而战。(句尾重心句尾重心)。An MS is a good investment(前重心前重心)/if you intend to advance as a technical specialist,which is career goal of about half of our engineering respondents.如果你想成为一位技术专家，理学硕士如果你想成为一位技术专家，理学硕士(Master of Science)会是一项好会是一项好的投资的投资(后重心后重心)，约半数有工程专业背景的受访者都把成为技术专家当作，约半数有工程专业背景的受访者都把成为技术专家当作自己的职业目标。自己的职业目标。There is no agreement(句首重心句首重心)/whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry.方法论是指一般的历史研究中特有的概念，还是指历史研究中各方法论是指一般的历史研究中特有的概念，还是指历史研究中各个具体领域适用的研究方法，人们对此意见不一个具体领域适用的研究方法，人们对此意见不一(句尾重心句尾重心)。For example,they do not compensate for gross social inequality,and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been(前重心前重心)had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.比如比如,它们不能弥补巨大的社会不公它们不能弥补巨大的社会不公,因此不能说明一个物质条件因此不能说明一个物质条件差的年轻人差的年轻人,如果在较好的环境中长大如果在较好的环境中长大,会有多大才干会有多大才干(后重心后重心)。补偿；弥补补偿；弥补广泛的；广泛的；巨大的巨大的贫穷的；贫穷的；下层社会下层社会的的4.汉英语体风格对比4.1 在词汇上的表现在词汇上的表现1)英语有丰富的同义词 另一种同义词分类法另一种同义词分类法：本族词与外来词同义词组固定短语与单词同义词组英国英语与美国英语同义词组原形词与缩短词同义词组同义词辨析:词义轻重范围大小语体色彩（口头语、书面语）感情色彩（褒、贬）具体和抽象搭配组合brave:(Italian)坚定刚毅bold:(old English)勇猛，甚至肆无忌惮courageous:(French)坚强不屈的性格valiant:(Latin)(雅literary）用于人 (very brave,especially in a difficult situation)valorous:(Latin)(雅literary）用于人、事迹或技艺 (full of valor-great courage,especially in war)postpone -put offtolerate -put up withextinguish -put outraise -put up“Words are seldom exactly synonymous.”-Samuel Johnson“English is among the easiest languages to speak badly,but the most difficult to use well.”-C.L.Wren British Linguist2)一词多义和一词多用现象No context,no text.4.2 在句法上的表现在句法上的表现汉语句式汉语句式(1)结构上：单句和复句结构上：单句和复句其他：主谓句、无主句、流水句、主题句主题句散句：长句、短句整句：对偶句、排比句、顶真句、回环句(2)文体功能：文体