战略柔性一个世界级制造业新的现实外文翻译.doc

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Strategic flexibility: a new reality for world-class manufacturing
The development of the concept of flexibility has been slow in the manufacturing literature because of the relatively stable market structure and minimal competitive pressure prior to the 1960s. In fact, manufacturing was not considered particularly important in the formulation of business strategy. As the competitiveness problems increased, practitioners and academicians began to recognize that manufacturing strategy was vital in supporting changes of corporate strategy. Consequently, a number of analytical models and empirical studies were developed to enhance manufacturing flexibility. According to Suarez, Cusumano, and Fine (1995), most empirical studies on manufacturing flexibility serve one of the following purposes: (1) to develop taxonomies of flexibility; (2) to investigate the relationship between flexibility and performance; (3) to cover historical and economical analyses of flexibility; and (4) to develop strategic frameworks for flexibility. Carlsson (1989), Sethi and Sethi (1990), Hyun and Ahn (1992), and Upton (1994) are just a few research works that provide further literature reviews on flexibility.
Flexibility is often regarded as one of the competitive priorities, along with cost, quality, and innovation. Just as low cost and high quality have already become a requirement for market entry, flexibility might ultimately be the key to enhancing a firm's competitive ability. While uncertainty can be a threat to some firms, it provides opportunity to those with higher degrees of flexibility, either market-oriented or resources-oriented. Firms that are able to deal with uncertainties that their competitors cannot have market-oriented flexibility. By reducing market uncertainties or exerting influence on customer expectations, firms have more strategic choices and can adopt a more proactive approach to competing. Firms with highly flexible production systems have resource-oriented flexibility and can be more responsive to the changing market.
By combining these two concepts, Figure 1 shows the dominant competitive priorities corresponding to the firm's ability to cope with uncertainties. Not only can world-class manufacturing firms adapt to the changing environment swiftly, but they also can influence market demand (e.g., by creating uncertainties or customer expectations that competitors cannot deal with). Both reactive and proactive approaches have proved to be equally important and require different types of flexibility. Instead of focusing on one particular dimension of flexibility, world-class manufacturing firms need a strategic perspective of flexibility - the ability to quickly adjust their competitive objectives to meet new business conditions.
In a stable competitive environment like decades ago, a competitive strategy simply involved defining a competitive position and then defending it. Since the competitive environment has changed rapidly and unpredictably, however, new knowledge and capabilities are needed to support any strategy to create a sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, the goal of the latest developments in manufacturing strategy is to attain strategic flexibility. Competitive advantage commonly refers to the creation of a production-distribution system that has a unique advantage over its competitors. Achieving competitive advantage does not imply that the company must always do better than the competitors in all areas. The key is to do certain things better in most of the areas. Deciding which areas to target is the central issue of competitive priorities. Competitive advantages traditionally have been accomplished through economies of scale and product and process technology, but these are no longer sufficient.
Competitive advantage through economies of scale is best illustrated by mass production. Furthermore, Henry Ford's dictum that "customers can have any color as long as it's black" still convinces many manufacturers that they must choose between standardization at low cost or flexibility at high cost. This has been disproved by Japanese automobile and electronics manufacturers who achieve an optimal balance of product standardization and manufacturing flexibility.
The dynamics of today's competitive environment suggest that economies of scale and product or process technology will be a diminishing source of competitive advantage. As a result, manufacturers are turning their attention to building the skills and knowledge of their workforce. World-class manufacturers also realize that competitive advantage can be created only when the manufacturing strategy is well integrated with other functional strategies, which together support the overall corporate strategy. It implies that changes in strategy are necessary to cope with the changes in competitive environment and in the organization itself. Therefore, there is no "best" manufacturing strategy, and all competitive manufacturers should be ready to shift from one strategy to another as needed. The appropriate strategy depends on a firm's strengths and weaknesses. Two manufacturing firms may develop different strategies yet both compete in the same market with success. In addition, sticking with a single competitive strategy (no matter how successful) often turns out to be problematic when the underlying conditions change.
Given the dynamic nature of the marketplace, flexibility has already become the most important competitive priority of the 1990s. Flexibility is usually classified broadly as product or service-related (such as volume, product mix, and modification) and process technology-related (such as changeover, scheduling, and innovation). While these sources of flexibility are essential to provide competitive advantage to manufacturers, they tend to be operational or tactical in nature. To acquire a sustainable competitive advantage, management must develop strategic flexibility, which requires long-term commitment and the development of critical resources. Note that no specific manufacturing techniques or improvement programs are included. Instead, the emphasis is on developing skills such as knowledge, capabilities, and a flexible organizational structure. These are the foundation of strategic flexibility that allow future changes to take place as needed; and, best of all, their unique nature means that no one else can "copy" them easily.
Strategic flexibility allows a manufacturing firm to shift from one dominant strategy to another, from one competitive priority to another, but also implies a long-term commitment of resources and a plan of action. Progress, therefore, depends on the current state of the firm's resources and capabilities. Generally, strategic flexibility is attained through a three-step process: awareness, understanding, and implementation.
Phase 1: Be aware that only strategic flexibility will provide sustainable competitive advantage over the long run. During the last two decades, quality improvement, automation, and advanced manufacturing techniques, to name a few, have often been perceived as a path to competitive advantage. While they may lead to positive outcomes, a number of empirical studies suggest that many firms found them ineffective. Many manufacturers focused too much on the form or mechanics of such programs while overlooking the development of skills and capabilities needed to support the changes. Resistance to change is greater if management fails to see the necessity for changes. Until management fully recognizes the need for long-term competitive advantage, there is no clear incentive to devote the time, effort, and expense to develop strategic flexibility.
Phase 2: Understand that the manufacturing function's performance links directly to corporate performance and survival. Understanding the importance of the manufacturing function and its link to corporate performance provides a focal point for management to think more proactively about building capabilities for the future. The poor performance of many major manufacturing firms during the last two decades was no surprise to many researchers. Companies that develop a clear linkage between business and manufacturing strategies tend to be more successful and profitable. This finding has substantiated the argument that manufacturing is indeed a key competitive variable, especially in those industries where customers are increasingly cost and quality conscious.
Phase 3: Formulate and implement strategies that center on the development of skills, manufacturing capabilities, and lean organizational structures. The outdated manufacturing strategy based on mass production is not responsive enough to cope with rapidly changing markets and shortened product life cycles. In addition, production jobs have become more challenging and conceptual, as routine and repetitive tasks are performed by automated equipment. The full benefit of technology can be exploited only when workers understand and control a large part of the production process.
* Skills and knowledge
A productive work force today must be highly skilled and flexible, characteristics that can only be developed through extensive training and experience in a variety of job assignments. Therefore, the workplace must be reorganized to promote continuous learning, which must become a normal part of work life. Evidence suggests that not many manufacturers, particularly in the United States, give high priority and commit sufficient resources to training their front-line workers. Management needs to realize that maintaining and upgrading the skills of their workforce is central to their competitive strategy. Management must focus on the cultivation of multi-skilled workers and stop treating them as replaceable parts or a cost to be controlled. In an attempt to find out why the improvement of flexibility has been so elusive, Upton (1995) observed that "most managers put too much faith in machines and technology, and too little faith in the day-to-day management of people" (p. 75). The basic theme of a skills development program is to encourage continuous learning throughout the company. Training programs should be developed in ways that are consistent with carefully defined goals and the availability of resources. More important, management should anticipate future skill needs, not just immediate ones.
Complex computer-based production systems are likely to prevail. Training people to conceptualize, design, and use new production technology is as crucial as adopting the technology itself. Technology is often perceived as a way to replace workers, it does not mean that human resources are no longer important in achieving competitiveness. Indeed, the only way for manufacturers to maximize their investment in new technology is to upgrade the skill levels of their workforce. As production becomes more challenging and conceptual, because automated equipment performs most of the routine and repetitive tasks, investment in workforce skills development is increasingly vital.
* Manufacturing Capabilities
Strategic flexibility is not just about a flexible workforce; it requires an augmentation of the workforce with advanced process and information technologies to satisfy customer demands. Advanced process technology, such as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), is crucial for achieving mass customization. An FMS can manufacture assorted products using the same group of machines linked by automated materials handling systems and controlled by a computer system. Automated and preprogrammed workstations are linked for different operations, ensuring that all members of a family of parts can be produced whenever needed. With the installation of FMS, General Electric can deliver a custom-made circuit box in three days instead of three weeks. Likewise, Motorola manufactures custom-designed electronic pagers in less than three hours.
Ample evidence suggests that product designs can be significantly simplified if cross-functional design teams are used. A cross-functional design team will help facilitate a modular approach to product design. This approach provides a viable product design strategy to meet changing demand with the advantage of standardization. Modular design is the creation of products from some combination of existing, standardized components; it requires much creativity and communication across the company. Japanese automobile manufacturers have invested heavily in designing parts that can be combined in a number of ways and used interchangeably among several models. Although the modular design will occasionally increase the cost of tools and dies, it facilitates faster introduction of new car models and drastically reduces product development costs.
* Organizational Transformation
The ultimate success of strategic flexibility requires a redefinition of traditional organizational functions, including links with suppliers and customers. Deep organizational hierarchies, as found in major manufacturing firms, impede cooperation and communication. In recent years, many corporate restructuring efforts have moved to flatten organizational structures to focus on cross-functional integration and employee participation. Corporate communication is then facilitated by a structure that is free from departmental boundaries and limitations. An ultimate goal is to turn the entire production process into modules and to create a dynamic network of skills and capabilities that allows the rapid integration of resources to customize products or services.
Mass production of standardized products is no longer a feasible way to meet the challenge of changing market demand and shortened product life cycles. In fact, the usual method of first identifying a fixed competitive priority, such as cost, quality, time, flexibility, or innovation, and then devoting all resources to meet it will no longer provide a sustainable competitive advantage. World-class manufacturers must obtain strategic flexibility to cope with more uncertainties than just changing demand patterns and production volumes. Strategic flexibility is not an improvement program, but is rather the ability to adapt and the readiness for change. The goal of strategic flexibility is to provide more options so that a firm can shift from a current manufacturing strategy to a new one with minimal penalties in cost, time, or performance. True strategic flexibility can be achieved only through the development of skills and manufacturing capabilities, which eventually lead to complete organizational transformation.
Source: Lau, R.S.M.“Strategic flexibility: a new reality for world-class manufacturing”. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 1996(3):P11-15.

译文：
战略柔性：一个世界级制造业新的现实
由于20世纪60年代前期相对稳定的市场结构和较小的竞争压力，柔性概念的发展已经逐渐运用到制造业文化中。事实上，制造业并没有认为商业战略的制