段落发展的几种手段.doc

(完整word版)段落发展的几种手段段落发展的几种手段1 列举法(listing)作者运用列举法，是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。Yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything I did went wrong. First, I didnt hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didnt read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss. During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. At lunch time, I left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. After lunch, my boss was angry because I hadnt gone to the meeting. Then I didnt notice a sign on a door that said Wet Paint and so I spoilt my jacket too. When I got home I couldnt get into my flat because I had left my key in my office. So I broke a window to get in and cut my hand.根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything I did went wrong，作者列举了8点内容，分别由first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time等连接词语引出，使得该文条理清楚、脉络分明、内容连贯。常用于列举法的过渡连接词有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also等。2. 举例法(exemplification)作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。我们来看下面这个用举例法展开的段落。There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them.本段采用了三个事例来说明主题句中的关键词组different forms of exercises，这三个例子分别由连接词for example, for another example 和 besides引出，最后由引导的结尾句总结全段内容。举例法中常用的连接词有：for example (instance), one example is, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition等。3. 叙述法(narration)叙述法发展段落主要是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序，通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用，有层次分步骤地表达主题句的一种写作手段。用这种方法展开段落，作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末，从而可以使读者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含义，例如：In the flat opposite, a woman heard the noise outside. When she looked out through the window, she discovered that her neighbor was threatened by someone. She immediately called the police station. In answer to the call, a patrol police car arrived at the scene of the crime quickly. Three policemen went inside the flat at once, and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone from escaping.这段是按照事物发展的先后顺序，叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程。全文脉络清晰，叙述的层次感强，结构紧凑。常用于叙述法中的过渡连接词有：first, an the beginning, to start with, after that, later, then, afterwards, in the end, finally等。4 对比法或比较法(comparison & contrast)将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析是一种常用的思维方法。通过对比，更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点，例如： The heart of an electronic computer lies in its vacuum tubes, or transistors. Its electronic circuits work a thousand times faster than the nicer cells in the human brain. A problem that might take a human being a long time to solve can be solved by a computer in one minute. 在这段文字上， 作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快，首先将它与人脑进行了比较， - a thousand times faster than - ;而后，又将这一概念具体到了 a problem上，通过对比使读者从 - a long time - in one minute上有更加直观的认识。常用于对本法或比较法上的过渡连接词有：than, compared with等。5 分类法(classification)在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类，分别加以叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识，如： Ever since humans have lived on the earth, they have made use of various forms of communication. Generally, this expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communication is accomplished through sign language in which motions stand for letters, words and ideas. Tourists and the people unable to hear or speak have had to resort to this form of expression. Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid and exact and can be used internationally; spelling, however, cannot. Body language transmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions, either intentionally or unintentionally. A nod signifies approval, while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction. Other forms of nonlinguistic language can be found in signal flags, Morse code, and picture signs. 在该段中为了说明topic sentence中的 various forms of communication，作者将其分为oral speech, sign language, body language及other forms of nonlinguistic language，并逐加阐述。采用这种方法的段落并没有标志突出的连接词，所述各项均为平行并列关系，所以没有明显的主次之分。6因果分析法(cause and effect)在阐述某一现象的段落中，常采用因果分析法。例如： The role of women in todays society is changing. One reason is that women have begun to assert themselves as independent people through the womens movement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home. Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women. Moreover, men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively. 本段中，主题句提出了一种社会现象，推展句则对产生这种现象的原因作出各种解释。 常用于因果分析法的连接词有：because, so, as a result等。7 定义法(definition)在科普文章的写作中，定义法是必不可少的。通过下定义，可以使读者对该事物有一个更直接的认识。 Automation refers to the introduction of electronic control and automation operation of productive machinery. It reduces the human factors, mental and physical, in production, and is designed to make possible the manufacture of more goods with fewer workers. The development of automation in American industry has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. 这一段文字使我们了解了 automation 和 Second Industrial Revolution 两个概念，分别由 refers to 和 been called 引出。常出现在定义法中的词语有：refer to, mean, call等。8. 重复法(repetition)句子的一部分反复出现在段落中，这就是重复法。它往往造成一种步步紧逼的气氛，使文章结构紧凑，有感染力。比如： Since that time, which is far enough away from now, I have often thought that few people know what secrecy there is in the young, under terror. I was in mortal terror of the young man who wanted my heart and liver; I was in mortal terror of my interlocutor with the iron leg; I was in mortal terror of myself, from whom an awful promise had been extracted; - 该段中反复应用了I was in mortal terror of 我经常处于恐怖之中。以上， 我们结合具体文章讨论了展开段落的几种方法。在实际写作中，我们往往不必拘泥于一种写作方法，而是将若干方法穿插在一起，使文章有声有色。英语段落写作的技巧 一、段落主题借助具体的细节和原因展开(A paragraph of a general statement supported by specific details) 一般这类段落先明确地提出主题，紧接着就用一些具体的细节来论述或证明自己的观点。这些具体的细节或是原因，或是现象，总之可以充分证明自己观点的材料都可以拿来用的。下面这个段落，作者就采用了这种方法： A foreigners first impression of the U.S. is likely to be that everyone is in a rush-often under pressure. City people always appear to be hurrying to get where they are going, restlessly seeking attention in a store, or elbowing others as they try to complete their shopping. Racing through daytime meals is part of the pace of life in this country. Working time is considered precious. Others in public eating-places are waiting for you to finish so they, too, can be served and get back to work within the time allowed. You also find drivers will be abrupt and people will push past you. You will miss smiles, brief conversations, and small exchanges with strangers. Dont take it personally. This is because value time highly, and they resent someone else “wasting ”it beyond a certain appropriate point. 句子是这个段落作者要说明的观点，是段落的中心，段落的主题：美国人给人的第一印象总是匆匆忙忙的。那么表现在什么方面呢？句子分别是三个具体的细节，三种常见的现象。借助于这三个细节，读者可以得到一个很清晰的印象，美国人每天都忙忙碌碌的，原来是这个样子啊。依据句子我们就明白了，因为美国人太珍惜时间了，所以平时才那么紧张。 这种段落展开的方法,要求作者有比较详实的写作的素材。所以平时应注意观察周围的事物，养成论证自己观点的习惯，多读类似的文章，了解和体会西方人的思维模式。这样写出的文章才有英文的样子。 为了使段落更富于逻辑性，你可以使用一些思维连接词（thought connectors）比如：firstly, secondly, thirdly, 等等。 另外，这类段落比较适合写论说文和说明文。二、段落主题借助于一系列的例子展开（a paragraph of a statement supported by examples） 有时候我们提出的一些观点和看法比较抽象或空洞，读者可能很难理解或不肯能完全理解，这样我们可以借助一些例子来对观点加以说明。下面是一段很典型的例子： I now know he participate in some things through me, his only son. When I played ball(poorly), he “played ”too. When I joined the Navy , he “joined” too. And when I came home on leave, he saw to it that I visited his office. Introducing me, he was really saying, “this is my son, but it is also me, and I could have done this, too, if things had been different.” Those words were never said aloud. 父亲通过儿子参加一些社会活动，这个观点（句子）很笼统的，为了使自己的观点更可信，作者给出了几个很详实的例子（句子）。这样就使得段落有血有肉了，可信度强了，可读性也强了。 有时候，我们展开段落，完全可以用些具体的例子来从当细节的。从这个意义上讲，第一种方法应该包含第二中。由于习惯原因，我们也可以单独把它列为一种段落展开的有效方法。 这种方法的比较适合写简单的论说文和记叙文。 三、段落主题借助于一系列的事情展开（a paragraph of a statement supported by a list of things） 有时候我们的概念很抽象，那么就可以借助概念所包含的子相来加以说明。这个方法与第二种多少有些相似，但例子是一些翔实的行为过程，这里所说的子相大多是名词性短语。我们看看下面这个例子： Think about some of your unforgettable meetings: an introduction to your future spouse, a job interview, an encounter with a stranger. 这段就是通过一系列的子相来说明母相的，因为子相都是一些具体的，我们亲身经历过的一些场面，所以很容易被读者的观点，这是对抽象或空洞概念的解释。所以要想让读者理解你，读懂你，你要把模糊空洞的概念解释清楚。 当然对于一些艰涩的概念，我们也可以通过下定义的方法加以解释，以便与读者理解沟通。 Lets assume they come from the “unconscious”. This is reasonable, for psychologists use this term to describe mental processes which are unknown to the individual. 作者用了定义的方法来解释“潜意识”(unconscious)这个词。使那些即使没有心理学知识的读者也可以明白什么是潜意识了。 我们写段落时，对于那些艰涩概念，可以尝试用这类方法加以解释和说明，已达到与读者最佳的沟通效果。四、段落主题借助于问题-解决模式展开（a paragraph of a general statement supported by a problem-solution pattern） 写作政论性的文章，其实就是为解决一些社会问题。通常我们会对对解决的方法比较关心，更关心解决的结果如何，并对此做出评价。下面我们看这个例子： Speak to your community in a way they can hear. Many communities have a low literacy rate, making impossible passing this passing out AIDS literature and expecting people to read it. To solve this problem, ask people in a community who can draw well to create low-literacy AIDS education publications. These books use simple, hand-drawn pictures of sad faces and happy faces to illustrate ways people can prevent AIDS. They also show people who look like those we need to educate, since people can relate more when they see familiar faces and language they can understand. As a result, such books actually have more effect in the communities where they are used than government publications, which cost thousands of dollars more to produce.斜体的句子是段落的主题，统领两个段落，介绍了一个向社区人们宣传艾滋病的方法。句子告诉我们为什么用这种方法，也就是在宣传过程中遇到了哪些难题。句子介绍了几种解决方法，句子是对这些方法的评价。当我们读完这个段落时，或许也会承认这是一个很不错的办法。其实写文章就是说服人的过程，只要你资料翔实，话说得得体，会被读者认可的，即你的写作是成功的。 五、段落展开借助于一系列的时间顺序的动作（a paragraph of a set of sequential actions） 我们叙述一件事情的经过时，一般需要按照动作发生的先后顺序来写，以便给读者一个完整的印象。也可以说，一系列的动作描写同样可以表达一个主题。下面这个例子就能很客观地说明这一点。这种段落的展开技巧特别适合讲述故事。但是有一点大家要注意，这些动作不是无序的拼凑，是按照先后顺序发生的，与你要表达的主题的密切相关的。 Like most city folks, I am cautious. I scan the street and pathways for anything-or anyone-unusual before pulling into the garage. That night was no exception. But, as I walked out of the garage, KFC chicken in hand, a portly, unshaven young man in a stocking cap and dark nylon jacket emerged from the shrub by the parking pad and put his pistol between my eyes. 这个段落尽管没有主题句，但是我们看完后，我们就明白：尽管我很小心，但还是遭到抢劫了。作者使用了一系列的动作描写，而且是严格按时间顺序写的：being cautious; scanning the street before pulling in; waking out of the garage; a man emerged and put his gun at me. 借助这一系列的动作，读者很清晰的知道当时所发生的事情。那么作者的目的也就达到了，他的信息是有效的，写作是成功的。 大家要注意的是：有时候所有的动作是一个主体实施的，有时候可能是两个或多个，这主要取决于故事情节和中心的需要。 以上所介绍的几种方法，是段落展开的几种最常用的方法，也是英语报刊文章惯用的写作技巧，很容易掌握。学习掌握几种写作技巧，不仅可以提高我们的写作水平，而且还可以提高我们阅读速度，最关键是能提高我们对英语文学的鉴赏力，使我们终生受益。 写作是个积累的过程。正如俗话所说的：巧妇难为无米之炊。如果想有话可说，平时就要多读，多看，多写。有话可说，然后再恰当利用写作技巧，那我们就是一个写作的行家里手了。 总之，好的段落结构合理，好的文章章法不凡。阅读写作积累到一定程度，段落结构下些功夫，那么写出好的段落和文章来就不在话下了。