翻译教材-换言之-第二章..ppt

In Other WordsPart OneEquivalence at word level.What is a word?The smallest unit which we would expect to process individual meaning is the word.Defined loosely,the word is“the smallest unit of language that can be used by itself”(Bolinger and Sears,1968:43).Is there a one-to-one relationship between word and meaning?rebuild “re”and“build”to build again disbelieve “dis”and“believe”not to believe tennis player tenisci(Turkish)type pasar a maquina(Spanish)This suggests that there is no one-to-one correspondence between orthographic words and elements of meaning within or across language.Morphemes(词素)the minimal formal element of meaning in languageAn important difference between morphemes and words is that a morpheme cannot be further analyzed.It is important to keep this distinction clearly in mind because it can be useful in translation,particularly in dealing with neologisms(新词，新义)in the source language.Lexical MeaningPropositional meaning（命题意义）Expressive meaning（表达意义）Presupposed meaning（预设意义）Evoked meaning（诱发意义）.Propositional meaning The propositional meaning of a word or an utterance arises from the relation between it and what it refers to or describes in a real or imaginary world,as conceived by the speakers of the particular language to which the word or utterance belongs.It is this type of meaning which provides the basis on which we can judge an utterance as true or false.Expressive meaningExpressive meaning cannot be judged as true or false.This is because expressive meaning relates to the speakers feelings or attitude rather than to what words and utterances refer to.For example:Dont complain and Dont whinge.Presupposed meaningPresupposed meaning arises from co-occurrence restrictions,i.e.restrictions on what other words or expressions we expect to see before or after a particular lexical unit.These restrictions are of two types:1.Selectional restrictions（选择性限制）（选择性限制）:these are a function of the propositional meaning of a word.We expect a human subject for the adjective studious and an inanimate one for geometrical(几何的).2.Collocational restrictions（搭配性限制）（搭配性限制）:these are semantically arbitrary restrictions which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of a word.For instance,in English,teeth are brushed,but in German and Italian they are polished,in Polish they are washed,and in Russian they arecleaned.Evoked meaningEvoked meaning arises from dialect and register variation.A dialect is a variety of language which has currency within a specific community or group of speakers.It may be classified on one of the following bases:1.Geographical 2.Temporal 3.SocialRegister is a variety of language that a language user considers appropriate to a specific situation.Register variation arises from variations in the following:1.Field of discourse 2.Tenor of discourse 3.Mode of discourse.The problem of non-equivalence1.Semantic field and lexical sets-the segmentation of experience2.Non-equivalence at word level and some common strategies for dealing with it.Semantic field and lexical sets the segmentation of experience It is sometimes useful to view the vocabulary of a language as a set of words referring to a series of conceptual fields.These fields reflect the divisions and sub-divisions imposed by a given linguistic community on the continuum of experience.In linguistics,the divisions are called semantic fields(语义场语义场).Fields are abstract concepts.An example of a semantic field would be the field of speech,or plants,or vehicles.A large number of semantic fields are common to all or most languages.Most,if not all,languages will have fields of distance,size,shape,time,emotion,believes,academic subjects,and natural phenomena.The actual words and expressions under each field are sometimes called lexical sets(词集词集).语义场 语义场语义场理论是语义学研究的一个重要成果，最早由德国语言学家 J.Trier 提出。他认为在一种语言中，每个词都身居其亲属概念之间，这些词相互之间以及他们共同特指的那个词一起构成了一个自成系统的整体，这种结构可称为词场，即语义场。他主张把词汇当网络，研究词汇在网络中的相互关系。王寅认为语义场是由具有某些共同语义特征的一群词类聚合而成的场。总之，语义场理论的基本内涵是：语言中的词汇在语义上是相互联系的，他们构成一个完整的系统，其中某些词在一个共同概念的支配下，构成一个语义场。.由于语义场的存在，我们只有通过分析和比较词与词之间的关系，才能恰当确定一个词的真正意义。任何一种语言都包含大量语义场，这些语义场由于彼此间意义不同，词义关系也就不同，因而分成很多类。在英语中，语义场主要分成四种类型：上下义义场(hyponymy)整体与部分义场(part/whole relationship)同义义场(synonymy)反义义场(antonymy).It seems reasonable to suggest that the more detailed a semantic field is in a given language,the more different it is likely to be from related semantic fields in other languages.There are two main areas in which an understanding of semantic fields and lexical sets can be useful to a translator:a.appreciating the value that a word has in a given system;andb.developing strategies for dealing with non-equivalence.(a)Understanding the difference in the structure of semantic fields in the source and target languages allows a translator to assess the value of a given item in a lexical set.If you know what other items are available in a lexical set and how they contrast with the item chosen by a writer or speaker,you can appreciate the significance of the writers or speakers choice.You can understand not only what something is,but also what it is not.This is best illustrated by the following example：In the field of temperature,English has four main divisions:cold,cool,hot and warm.This contrasts with Modern Arabic,which has four different divisions:baarid(cold/cool),haar(hot:of the weather),saakhin(hot:of objects),and daafi(warm).(b)Semantic fields are arranged hierarchically,going from the more general to the more specific.The general word is usually referred to as superordinate and the specific word as hyponym.In the field of VEHICLES,vehicle is a superordinate and bus,car,truck,coach,etc.are all hyponyms of vehicle.It stands to reason that any propositional meaning carried by a superordinate or general word is,by necessity,part of the meaning of each of its hyponyms,but not vice versa.If something is a bus,then it must be a vehicle,but not the other way round.We can sometimes manipulate this feature of semantic fields when we are faced with semantic gaps in the target language.Translators often deal with semantic gaps by modifying a superordinate word or by means of circumlocutions based on modifying superordinates.To sum up,the notion of semantic fields can provide the translator with useful strategies for dealing with non-equivalence in some contexts.It is also useful in heightening our awareness of similarities and differences between any two languages and of the significance of any choice made by a speaker in a given context.One important thing to bear in mind when dealing with semantic fields is that they are not fixed.Semantic fields are always changing,with new words and expressions being introduced into the language and others being dropped as they become less relevant to the needs of a linguistic community.Common problems of non-equivalence1.Culture-specific concepts2.The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target language3.Eg：savoury 开胃菜4.3.The source-language word is semantically complexEg：arruao,a Brazilian word “clearing the ground under coffee trees of rubbish and piling it in the middle of the row in order to aid in the recovery of beans dropped during harvesting”(ITI News,1988:57).4.The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning.5.The target language lacks a superordinate6.The target language lacks a specific term（hyponym下义词）Eg:a.house villa（别墅）,chalet（瑞士山中小木屋）,cottage（村舍）,lodge（临时住宿处，门房）,etc.b.article report,review,commentary,survey,etc.7.Differences in physical or interpersonal perspectiveEg:pairs of words:come/go,take/bring,arrive/depart8.Differences in expressive meaning9.Differences in form10.Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms11.The use of loan words in the source text.Strategies used by professional translators1.Translation by a more general word(superordinate)This is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of nonequivalence,particularly in the area of propositional meaning.It works equally well in most,if not all,languages,since the hierarchical structure of semantic fields is not language-specific.Examples：(1)Source text(Chinas Panda Reserves):Today there may be no more than 1000 giant pandas left in the wild,restricted to a few mountain strongholds in the Chinese provinces of Sichuan,Shaanxi and Gansu.Target text(back-translated from Chinese):Today there may be only 1000 big pandas which still remain in the wild state,restricted to certain mountain areas in Chinas Sichuan,Shaanxi and Gansu.(2)Source text:翠翠睨睨着腰背微驼的祖父，不说什么话。(沈从文 边城2011：65)Target text:Emerald looks in silence at his white hair and bent back.(杨宪益 戴乃迭 2011：64).2.Translation by a more neutral/less expressive wordExamples：(1)Source text(Chinas Panda Reserves):Many of the species growing wild here are familiar to us as plants cultivated in European gardens species like this exotic lily.Target text(back-translated from Chinese):We are very familiar with many varieties of the wild life here,they are the kind grown in European gardens varieties like this strange unique lily flower.(2)Source text:祖父抿着嘴把头摇摇，装成狡猾神气得意笑着装成狡猾神气得意笑着，把扎在腰带上的那枚单铜子取出，送给翠翠。(沈从文 边城2011：63)Target text:He purses his lips and shakes his head with a knowing wink,then extracts from his girdle the ten-cent coin he has kept and gives it to her.(杨宪益 戴乃迭 2011：62).3.Translation by cultural substitution This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with a target-language item which does not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader.The main advantage of using this strategy is that it gives the reader a concept with which s/he can identify,something familiar and appealing.Example：轿子 saloon（小轿车），sedan chair象棋 chess（国际象棋），Chinese chess.4.Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation This strategy is particularly common in dealing with culture-specific items,modern concepts,and buzz words.Following the loan word with an explanation is very useful when the word in question is repeated several times in the text.Once explained,the loan word can then be used on its own;the reader can understand it and is not distracted by further lengthy explanations.Example：Source text：十六个结实如牛犊的小伙子，带了香，烛，鞭炮同一个用生牛皮蒙好绘有朱红太极图太极图的高脚鼓，到了搁船的河上游山洞边(沈从文 边城2011：35)Target text：Sixteen youngsters,strong as young oxen,carrying candles,fire-crackers and a big oxhide drum painted with a red diagram of the yin and yang（A Taoist sign）,march through the hills to where their boat is kept(杨宪益 戴乃迭 2011：34).5.Translation by paraphrase using a relate word This strategy tends to be used when the concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized in the target language but in a different form,and when the frequency with which a certain form is used in the source text is significantly higher than would be natural in the target language.Example:Source text(Chinas Panda Reserves):There is strong evidence,however,that giant pandas are related to the bears.Target text(back-translated from Chinese):But there is rather strong evidence that shows that big pandas have a kinship relation with the bears.6.Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words If the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the target language,the paraphrase strategy can still be used in some contexts.Instead of a related word,the paraphrase may be based on modifying a superordinate or simply on unpacking the meaning of the source item,particularly if the item in question is semantically complex.Example:Source text(Chinas Panda Reserves):.the lower mixed broadleaf forests.are the areas most accessible to and disturbed by Man.Target text(back-translated from Chinese):.the mixed broadleaf forests of the lowland area.are the places where human beings enter most easily and interfere most.7.Translation by omission This strategy may sound rather drastic,but in fact it does no harm to omit translating a word or expression in some contexts.If the meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy explanations,translators can and often do simply omit translating the word or expression in question.Example:Source text：这架电视机真是物美价廉物美价廉。Target text：This television is really cheap(in price)and fine(in quality).8.Translation by illustration This is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target language refers to a physical entity which can be illustrated,particularly if there are restrictions on space and if the text has to remain short,concise,and to the point.Example:扁担 shoulder pole.Thanks for listening!Goodbye!2012.5.28.