资源描述
单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,Page,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,English Rhetoric,By Song Pingfeng,Chapter Two Brief History of Western Rhetoric,1/37,Page,2,1.Classical rhetoric,2.Rhetoric in the Middle Ages,3.Rhetoric in the Renaissance,4.New Classic Rhetoric,5.Contemporary Rhetoric,Contents of This Chapter,2/37,Page,3,The concept of rhetoric in general,Along with grammar and logic or dialectic,rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse.,Rhetoric,normally explains the three arts of using language as a means to persuade(logos,pathos,and ethos),as well as the five canons of Rhetoric:memory,invention,delivery,style,and arrangement.From ancient Greece to the late 19th Century,it was a central part of Western education,filling the need to train public speakers and writers to move audiences to action with arguments.,3/37,Page,4,1.Classical rhetoric(5th B.C 5th A.D.),In the ancient times,rhetoric evolved as an important art,one that provided the orator with the forms,means,and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orators arguments.Rhetoric originates from the ancient Greece.It provides two necessary conditions for the classical rhetoric.,1.1 Necessary conditions of classical rhetoric,(1)Greek Democracy:,Democracy provides a necessary condition for the birth of classical rhetoric.The ancient Greeks are a unique people.They believed that individuals should be free as long as they acted within the laws of Greece.This allowed them the opportunity to excel any direction they chose.Individuality was the basis of their society.The ability to strive for excellence was what Athenians dearly believed in.,(2)Great thinkers/scholars:,There are a lot of great thinkers/scholars in the ancient Greece,such as Socrates(,苏格拉底,),Plato(,柏拉图,),and Aristotle(,亚里士多德,).Their great Words and thoughts are still taught in universities to this day.Most of them are great rhetoricians.,4/37,Page,5,1.2 The social and political organizations of Ancient Greece:,(1)Polis or City-state:,In 508 B.C.,the city of Athens became one of the first polis,or one of the first city-states in ancient times.,(2)Democracy and Council:,In 508 B.C.,Cleisthenes(,克利斯提尼，他将索伦立法改革制订成法律文件，通常被认为是雅典民主政治创建者,)instituted a new political organization whereby the citizens would take a more careful and more direct role in running the city-state.He called this new political organization“demokratia”,or democracy-rule by the entire body of citizens.He created a Council of Five Hundred which planned the business of the public assemblies.,It was the Council that provided people a place of public speaking.,5/37,Page,6,1.3 Sophists and their practices of rhetoric,Out of growing demand for education in the 5th century B.B.,Greece called into existence a class of teachers known as sophists.Sophist were a professional class rather than a school,and as such they were scattered over Greece and exhibited professional rivalries.,The sophists undertook to provide a stock of arguments on any subject,or to prove any position.,They boasted of their ability to make the worse appear the better reason,to prove that black is white,.One representative of them was Gorgias.,“Man is the measure of all things.”,人类是衡量全部事物标准。,6/37,Page,7,1.4 Some Ancient Greek Rhetoricians and their theory,(1).Corax(,科拉克斯,),Corax of Syracuse and his students Tisias(,蒂西亚斯，有名捉刀人，专门为诉讼者撰写诉状,)were the first rhetoricians in history.,His theory:the first is a theory of how arguments should be developed from probabilities;the second is their first concept of organization of a message.According to Corax,legal arguments should consist of four parts:introductory,explanation,argumentation and conclusion.(Corax,将法律演说分成四个部分：序言，解释，论辩和结论。,),7/37,Page,8,Plato maintained that rhetoric was the expression of truth and the art of rational discourse rather than the art of eloquent expression.He argued that clarity,consistency and naturalness were the only features necessary for the effective presentation of ideas.He asserted that genuine eloquence derived its force from truth and spontaneity.This,in part,was a reaction to the use of rhetorical artifice by the Sophists as a means of deceiving and manipulating people.,(2)Plato and his theory about rhetoric,8/37,Page,9,柏拉图著作中很多地方都表示了对修辞贬斥。在,高尔吉亚篇,中，苏格拉底声称，修辞,“,创造是这么一个劝服方式：它只制造对正义与非正义看法，却对怎样认识它们毫无教益,”,（,Plato,：,455a,）；修辞家,“,不需要了解事物真实面目，他只需找到某种方式让那些无知人相信他比真正有知识人更有知识就行了,”,（,459b,）。所以，修辞与真理无关，根本不关心真理，甚至带有显著坑骗意味。,然而，柏拉图对修辞看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在,1924-1925,年讲授,智者篇,时提出，柏拉图修辞观念有一个演变过程，其轨迹能够经过比较三篇对话勾勒出来（,Brogan,：,3-15,）。,高尔吉亚篇,代表了早期柏拉图全盘否定修辞态度；海德格尔认为，在,智者篇,中，柏拉图态度有了重大改变，转而相信修辞对,“,不在,”,（,non-being,）或者说,“,存在,”,之外领域关注应该在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（,dialectic,）能够克服修辞坑骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；,斐德若篇,(,Phaedrus,),则是发生这一转变关键场所。在这篇对话中，柏拉图着重探讨了真理（,aletheia,）与语言（,logos,）关系。,9/37,Page,10,拉斐尔最著名壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制,雅典学院,。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来多个著名哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包含柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理追求，赞美人类创造力。,Platos student(384-322 BC)famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today.,In the first sentence of,The Art of Rhetoric,Aristotle says that rhetoric”is the counterpart of,dialectic,.He means that rhetoric has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to but different from the domain or scope of application of dialectic.Rhetoric is used in place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a court of law or in a legislative assembly.The domain of rhetoric is civic affairs and practical decision making in civic affairs,not theoretical considerations of operational definitions of terms and clarification of thought these,for him,are in the domain of dialectic.,(3).Aristotle(,亚里士多德,),and his theory about rhetoric,11/37,Page,12,Aristotle heavily emphasizes the three basic elements in rhetoric:logos(,逻辑,),pathos(,情感,)and ethos(,人格,).,Logos contains profound implications of logic.When applied to the practice of speaking and writing,logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers.,E.g.,To us Chinese,learning a foreign language is not an easy thing.After all,it is different from our mother tongue.Others can learn it well,why not we?,Effective logical reasoning comes from sound,（完美）,logical thinking,expressed in relevant material,proper organization,coherent sentences,and words that appropriately convey ones intended meanings.Examine the following example taken from a students composition:,12/37,Page,13,(1),In formal logic,there are two basic approaches for logical reasoning:,Inductive reasoning,and,Deductive reasoning,Logos:Formal logic and syllogism,（形式逻辑和三段推理法）,a)What is deduction(,演绎推理,)?,Deduction is the inference of particular instances by reference to a general law or principle.(-The New Oxford Dictionary of English),（演绎推理是由普通原理或规律推出关于特殊情况下结论）,Or:,Deduction is reasoning from general principles to particular cases.,e.g.All men must die.,人固有一死。（,Major premise),I am a man.,我是人。,(Minor premise),Therefore I must die.,我一定会死。,(Conclusion),13/37,Page,14,b)What is induction,（归纳推理）,?,Induction is the inference of a general law from particular instances.(ditto),（归纳推理是由一系列详细事实概括出普通规律）,Or:,Induction is the method of logic reasoning which contains or discovers a general law from particular facts or examples.,E.g.,Gold is a conductor.,金是一个导体。,Silver is a conductor.,银是一个导体。,Copper is a conductor.,铜是一个导体。,Iron is a conductor.,铁是一个导体。,They are all metals.,它们都是金属。,All metals are conductors.,全部金属都是导体。,14/37,Page,15,(2)What is syllogism,（三段推理法）,?,Syllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise,a minor premise,and a conclusion.,e.g.All metals are conductors.(Major premise),Copper is a metal.(Minor premise),Therefore copper is a conductor.(Conclusion),More examples about the use of logos:,96%of dangerous drivers are men.93%of drunk drivers are men.81%of parking offenders are men.So why should women have to pay the same for car insurance?,（,Women,s Own,July31,1995,）,15/37,Page,16,2.,Pathos:,the use of emotional appeals to alter the audiences judgment.The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pity as well as various other feelings.,Originally,the term“pathos”referred to the emotion in general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience.In modern rhetoric,it ranges from the study of the psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals(,情感魅力,).,The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pity as well as various other feelings.By playing upon(,利用,)such feelings,the writer intends to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers.,Changes in the connotation of pathos,（情感含义改变）,16/37,Page,17,The use of emotional appeals is all around us.It is an essential element in advertising,public relations,image-making(,塑造形象,),and education,especially in“affective education”(,情感教育,).In modern management,the practice of what is called“emotion investment”(,感情投资,)is also associated with pathos.For instance,the manager remembers to prepare a gift for each member of the staff on his or her birthday.,Effective appeals to the emotions depend upon the skilful-often witty handling of language,frequently accompanied by“exposure”,（揭露）,and“eloquence”,（口才）,.,Pathos in use,today,（当今所用情感）,17/37,Page,18,(1).“Exposure”evokes moral indignation(,义愤，不平,)-sometimes humorously,sometimes angrily-by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are.The following is a letter that shows how an American mother resorts to(,采取,)this skill to move others to stand against the US unjust war against Vietnam:,18/37,Page,19,I am more than angry.I did not give birth to my one and only son to have him snatched away from me 18 years later.My child has been loved and cared for and taught right from wrong and will not be fed into any egomaniacs(,极端利己主义者,)war machine.,Our 18-to 25-year-olds have not brought this to world to its present sorry state.Men over the age of 35,down through the centuries,have brought us here,and we women have been silent accord.Well,this is one woman,one mother,who says No.I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have that glorious young life snuffed out.,Until the presidents,premiers,supreme rulers,politburos(,政治局,),senators and congressmen of the world are ready to physically,as opposed to verbally,lead the world into combat,they can bloody well forget my child.,Unite mothers!Dont throw your sons and daughters away.Sometime,somewhere,women must say no.,No.No.No.No.No.Never my child.,19/37,Page,20,Comments,Mothers love for children is profound,and universal.The writer of the letter is a mother herself,and therefore,her appeal(,呼吁,)has a special effect in arousing the sympathy of other mothers.,More Examples about the use of pathos:,Isnt it time for your life to be easier?,（电脑广告）,Is her skin really this beautiful?(Maxfactor,粉底霜广告,),This is what the best people use.,（化装品广告）,聪明妈妈会用锌。（某补锌产品广告）,War today is different.Schools and hospital communities are attacked as strategic targets.Children die.Children sufferBut if they remain out of sight and out of mind,our best efforts will fall far short of their needs.Will the world help?,这则广告号召大家参加帮助儿童活动以克服战争留给儿童痛苦。,20/37,Page,21,(2)“Eloquence”refers to language used powerfully and fluently to appeal to peoples nobler emotions-the sense of honor,love of ones country and hometown,desire to reach toward virtue(,到达效果,).Eloquence is often used emotively,to express ones emotions and evoke the sympathy of the audience on solemn occasions or issues of great significance.In this aspect,the speech made by Martin Luther King,JR.,（马丁,.,路德,.,金）,on August 28,1963,at the March on Washington(,在向华盛顿行进路上,),can be regarded as a fine sample of“the emotional crescendo(=climax,高潮,)of an emotional day”,21/37,Page,22,3.Ethos:,how the character(,品质,)and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable.,In ordinary speech or writing,ethos refers to the personal standing,academic authority,and moral qualities of the writer or speaker,used to guarantee or even raise the writers or speakers credibility,(,可信度,),and acceptability,(,可接收性,),in the eyes of the readers or audience.,For instance,when a magazine claims that,An,MIT,professor predicts that the robotic era is coming in 2050,the use of big-name MIT(a world-renowned American university for the advanced research in math,science,and technology)establishes the strong credibility.,22/37,Page,23,The following are a few cases indicating“ethos”in practice:,a.,In anthologies(,诗歌,)or textbooks,there is usually a brief account of each text and its author,which tends to help readers to study it and to increase their interest in studying it.This,in fact,can be regarded as an application of“ethos”.,b.,A book usually has a preface and it is almost always written by an authoritative source.The purpose is inevitably to raise the social,literary or academic standard of the book,for there is always a positive introduction and favorable comment on the publication.In addition,the biding(,装订,)and layout(,版面设计,)of a book,a photo and an introduction about the author are all associated with ethos.,23/37,Page,24,c.,The titles,positions,address,fax(,电传,)and telephone numbers on ones name card all have something to do with ethos,which not only help people communicate but they also provide credibility.,d.,At a conference,the chairpersons introduction of each speaker is also meant to raise the social,personal and academic status of the speaker,and if the speaker gives the audience a striking impression by his opening remarks,he will probably be successful in his speech.,24/37,Page,25,(3).Aristotle(,亚里士多德,)and his theory about rhetoric,In his,Rhetoric,Aristotle classified oratory,雄辩 演说,into three categories:,political(,议政演说,),forensic(,法学演说,),and,ceremonial(,宣德演说,).,Political oratory urges the audience to do or not to do something;forensic oratory attacks or defends somebody;,the ceremonial oratory praises or census somebody.,25/37,Page,26,1.5 Some Roman rhetoricians and their theory,(1)Cicero and his theory,Cicero was a statesman and philosopher.For Cicero,rhetoric is a branch of political science.He synthesized,(,综合,合成,),the rhetoric of Plato,Isocrates and Aristotle.,He divided Aristotles section on the proofs into separate categories and expanded the parts of an argument from four to six:,1)Exordium,(introduction);,2)narratio,(a discussion of what has occurred to generate the issue to be resolved);,3)partitio,(a division of the argument or outline of the points to be proven);,4)confirmatio,(proofs for or confirmation of the argument);,5)refutatio,(proofs disproving the opponents arguments);,6)conclusio,(a review of the argument and a final appeal to the audience),Cicero also suggested three levels of style:high,middle,and low which were intended respectively to move,delight,and teach the audience.,26/37,Page,27,Quintilian further expanded Cic
展开阅读全文
浙ICP备2021020529号-1 | 浙B2-20240490 
