英语词汇学词义的变化.pptx

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,第五章 词义改变Change of Meaning,外语学院 徐红新,1/123,When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different,the result is a change of word meaning.,“Change of meaning is a commonplace,and indeed it would appear to be fundamental in living language,almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago:and a century ago it had a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century before that.”,_ Quirk 1963:123-124,2/123,Causes of changes in word meaning,1.the world is changing,社会是语言外部原因（索绪尔，1980：43），不过社会又不是普通外部原因，而是客体世界中最主要外部原因，因为语言是特殊社会现象，语言跟社会诸原因有千丝万缕关系。,1.1 旧词添新义 carship,1.2 科技发展 光环,1.3 普通义位与科技义位间转变 menu,window,1.4 社会集团社会地位改变 governor,lord,1.5 经济发展 狗、马,1.6 民族或种族矛盾原因 Dutch,3/123,2.Human being is changing,2.1 认识水平在提升 heart,brain,2.2 思想观念更新 天堂、老板、演员、士兵,2.3心理感情原因,求新：净面、洗脸、飚客、粉丝,闪族,求美：春风、教室,求省：机票、机场、机群、客机、班机,gold metal,求雅：euphemism 下岗、老、战略性撤退、穷,circumlocution liesteallazy,感情原因（移情）：冤家,4/123,3.The language is changing,3.1 semantic reason,harvestautumn motor 左右 红白赤,3.2 grammatical reason,廉颇老矣，尚能饭否？,3.3 pragmatic reason,斗 闻,5/123,a.Extension of meaning,b.Restriction of meaning,c.Degeneration of meaning,d.Elevation of meaning,e.Transformation of meaning,词义改变,2,6/123,Extension of Meaning,It is also called widening of,meaning or generalization.Its a,process by which a word which,originally had a specialized meaning,has now become generalized.,7/123,Four kinds of extension,A.From specific to general,B.From proper nouns to common nouns,C.From concrete to abstract,D.From technical terms to general words,8/123,A.From specific to general,从特指到泛指,Example,Picture:originally:a painting,or drawing,9/123,The present meaning,a photograph,a cinematic picture,an x-ray picture,a TV picture,a radio-telescope picture,any picture,10/123,More Examples,rubbish,Originally:,rubble,(,碎石）,Now:,anything,worthless,11/123,B.From proper nouns to common nouns,Antonomasia 换称,the use of a proper noun,to convey a general idea,12/123,Example,Sandwich:It now denotes a popular fast food.It,originates from John Montague,Fourth earl of,Sandwich in 18th-century England.He was so,fond of gambling that he often forgot his meals.,He often ordered slices of bread with thick pieces,of roast beef stuffed between them be brought to,him so he could eat while playing.Later,people,used his name to refer to all similar food.,13/123,Greek Myth:a king punished for his,misdeeds by having to stand in water,that recedes when he tries to drink it,and under fruit that moves away,as he reaches for it.,Tantalus,Tantalize 挑逗,14/123,Argus百眼巨人,Greek myth:a giant with 100,eyes.After he was killed,his,eyes were transferred to the,Peacocks tail,Argus-eyed:,keen-sighted;,Observant明察秋毫,Example:,We have decided it,is impossible to,cheat when that,Argus-eyed pro-,fessor gives an,exam,15/123,Narcissus水仙花,Narcissus:Greek myth:a beautiful youth who fell in love with his ref-lection in a pool,hence the word:narcissism and the meaning:an interest in or admiration for oneself.,16/123,Munchausen,说大话人,He was a German soldier.After his retirement from his service in the Russian Army against the Turks,he told exaggerated stories of his campaigning adventures,thus the meaning:a person who boasts;exaggerated,.,17/123,Pinchbeck冒牌货,Christopher Pinchbeck was an British jeweler.He,invented an alloy of copper,zinc formerly used for cheap jewelery,hence the meaning:specious,似是而非,and spurious,伪造,goods.,18/123,Frankenstein,Frankenstein is a character in the novel written by famous British woman writer Mary W.Shelley.He is a medical researcher,who created a robot monster,brought it to life and finally was killed by the monster.,19/123,“Watergate”源指美国华盛顿特区综合大厦。1972年6月17日夜间，共和党争取总统连任委员会相关人员潜入大厦内民主党全国委员会总部而被捕，暴露了共和党政府在总统竞选中非法活动，造成美国历史上首次总统辞职，现泛指“丑闻”。,专有名词普通化与特定历史事件相关：,20/123,Louis Pasteur is a French chemist and biologist.His researches showing that the fermentation发酵 of milk and wine was due to the multiplication of bacteria and other microorganisms led to the discovery of the role of microorganism in human and animal disease.From these findings he developed immunization by inoculation免疫接种 of attenuated microbes微生物,and the process of pasteurization巴氏消毒法.,专有名词普通话与特定科技事件相关：,21/123,Pasteurization is a process which renders milk free of disease-producing bacteria and help to prevent it from spoiling without destroying the vitamins or changing the taste.It involves heating the milk to 1450-168F for 30 minutes.To pasteurize is to sterilize by pasteurization.,22/123,James Watt（瓦特）is a Scottish engineer who made fundamental improvements to the Newcomen steam engine,leading to the widespread use of steam power in mines,factories etc.In partnership with Mathew Boulton,Watt built may engines at their foundry铸造车间 in Birmingham.The unit of power is named after him.,23/123,Words of this group also include ampere（安培）,farad（法拉）,ohm（欧姆）,volt（伏特）,watt（瓦特）from French physicist Ampere,British physicist Faraday,German physicist Ohm,Italian physicist Volta and Scottish inventor Watt respectively,24/123,这类专有名词常为商标专有名。Walkman原来是Sony企业“随身听”注册商标，在激烈商业活动竞争中脱颖而出成为名牌。因为它家喻户晓，使它在人们心目中失去了一个专利商标，被用户作为“随身听”代名词去泛指一切“随身听”产品,。,与经济活动相关：,25/123,Words like nylon（尼龙）,orlon（奥纶）,dacron（涤纶）,rayon（人造丝）were originally tradenames and are now used to denote the four types of fabric.,26/123,生活节奏加紧，生活竞争加剧使得体育专业术语大量被用于日常生活之中：,与体育活动相关：,27/123,cover the bases:,补垒:可泛指“仔细考虑问题、提议、事情等每一个细节以确保万无一失”。,be out in left field:,棒球术语：左外场，位于外场防卫位置，语义泛化后指：“失去理智”，“错误”等。,28/123,strike out:,棒球术语，“三击未中，击球员出局”，现可指“努力失败”。,load the bases:,跑满垒：形容“任务即将被完成”。,hit a home run:,本垒打：泛指“取 得巨大成功”。,29/123,throw a curve ball:,打出曲线球，这种球在接手接球一刹那会拐弯飞出：形容“采取坑骗伎俩使某人大吃一惊”。,call the play:,作裁判：形容“负担有决定权职责”。,30/123,run with it:,带球向得分点跑去：,形容“开始实施一个计划或开,始着手某个事务”等。,31/123,touchdown:攻方持球触地，按照要求，攻方在对方端区持球触地可得6分，现在可用来形容“辉煌成就”。,32/123,Svengali(斯文加利)系英语小说家George du Maurier所著小说Trilby中音乐家。He is a person who controls anothers mind,usually with sinister intentions.,专有名词充当普通动词，比如：,He svengalied us into accepting his opinions.,他采取斯文加利式骗术使我们接收了他观点。,33/123,The United States is raising a,Frankenstein,by providing hardware to that country.,（美国向那个国家提供军事武器，到头来只会作法自毙。）,Frankenstein是英国作家 Mary Wollstonecraft-Shelley 于1818年所著小说中生理学研究教授。他创造了一个怪物，结果被这个怪物所毁灭。,英语普通化专有名词常见特征：,专有名词充当普通名词使用，比如：,34/123,Gerrymander:to divide the constituencies（选区）of a voting area so as to give one party an unfair advantage;to manipulate or adapt to ones advantage.,专有名词与普通名词拼缀组成动词，比如：,Californias Republican legislature,gerrymandered（为己党利益擅改选区）,the 26thto make it overwhelmingly Democratic and turn four adjoining districts into Republican strongholds.,35/123,“Gerrymander”comes from Elbridge Gerry,a U.S.politician+(sala)mander(蝾螈；）;from the salamander-like outline of an electoral district reshaped for political purposes while Gerry was governor of Massachusetts,36/123,Hooverize:vt 节约,（粮食等）由Hoover+ize 派生而来。,专有名词与动词词缀连用组成派生动词,?,37/123,Herbert Clark Hoover was a U.s.Statesman,31st president of the U.S.He organized relief for Europe during and after World War I.As president he made great efforts to reduce government expenses and lost favour after his failure to alleviate the effects of the Depression.,38/123,When proper nouns are commonized,many of them have lost their original identity:the initial letter may not be capitalized as already shown;these words can take suffixes ic,ian,-al,-ist,-ese,-ish,-esque to form different words.,39/123,这类专有名词转为普通动词在科技英语中尤为常见，尤其是商品名牌商标动词化，比如：,“Hoover”,“Whiteout”,“Mace”are the trademarks respectively for a type of vacuum cleaner“真空吸尘器”，a white correcting fluid“白色涂改液”，and a liquid causing tears and nausea,used as a spray for riot control,“梅斯催泪毒气”,40/123,to mace demonstrators,向游行示威者喷射梅斯气,to hoover a floor,用真空吸尘器吸地板上灰尘,to white out a mistake,用白色涂改液涂改错误,41/123,专有名词经过转类法转为普通形容词:,Mickey Mouse:the name of a cartoon character created by Walter Disney,known for his simple-minded attitudes,hence the meaning:,ineffective,trivial and insignificant,42/123,比如：,Two days for a 226-mile race is Mickey Mouse.,两天跑完226英里赛程是轻而易举事。,a mickey mouse college course 一门轻易学大学课程,43/123,专有名词普通化现象在当代英语中层出不穷。这种普通化现象在经济领域会带来一系列司法纠纷。在政治领域也会带来一些消极后果。,44/123,在美国，“Coke”,“Kleenex”（可丽舒面巾纸）,“Xerox”（施乐影印）,“Jell-o”（吉露果冻）“Scotch Tape（透明胶封口）”为阻止商标名普通化先后诉诸法庭，假如说以上商标名经过法律路径在一定程度上保护了自己产品名“专有”。,45/123,正因如此，越来越多厂家开始在商标名设计上标新立异。从语言形式上试图杜绝自己商品名语义泛化现象。从商标名专有名词普通化分析结果来看，有以下三种情况：,46/123,1）专有名词商标名含有浓厚描绘性特征：,Dry Ice:干冰，固态二氧化碳,Shredded Wheat:脆麦面条,Mineral Oil:矿物油,Corn Flakes:玉米片,47/123,2）专有名词含有半描绘性特征：,Cellophane:塞璐玢；玻璃纸,Escalator:电梯,Zipper:拉链,48/123,节约标准是指人们用商标名作为产品代名词。人们之所以这么做是因为商标名相对于产品名，前者可能更简便，且易上口。长此以往，造成商标名失去专有名词特征。,3）节约标准,49/123,如：Sanka牌“decaffeinated（脱去咖啡因）coffee”;,Teflon牌“Polytetrafluoroethylene 聚四氟乙烯coating”。,商标名“Sanka”以及“Teflon”在语符系统上比较简单，前者代替后者不可防止,50/123,为了预防专有名词普通化，生产厂家采取了一系列办法保护商标名专一性。,一是在拼写上采取反常规形式，在不该大写地方使用大写形式，如：TelePrompter(电子提词机)；,51/123,二是使其商标名作为专有形容词使用，如：Jell-o gelatin(果冻胶)。,52/123,这些办法也极难有效保护这些专有名词普通化趋势，因为语言使用者只要对这些专有名词稍加改动便能够使它们最少在形式上类似普通词。现在，字典已收入了“teleprompter提词装置”以及“jello凝胶物”便是很好例子。,53/123,C.From Concrete to Abstract,Grasp抓住、掌握,Place 广场、地位,Thing 集会、,54/123,Matter:originally meant timber,the hard part of a tree,Now it has a lot of abstract meanings.,55/123,1)The world is made of matter.,Substance(s)of which the physical thing is made,2)The matter in your essay is good.,Material for thought or expression,56/123,3)This is a matter I know little about.,Something in which attention is given,It made no matter to him that his brother lost all his money.,Of importance,57/123,D.From technical terms to general words:,Countdown:the counting aloud of numbers in reverse order before sth.happens,esp.Before a spacecraft is launched.,58/123,Now:emergency situation,十分危急情况；行将摊牌局面,That would lead to a countdown in Cambodia柬埔寨.,59/123,Feedback:it occurs in a machine or system when part of the power,sound or information produced goes back into the machine or system.,60/123,Now:response,The reader feedback was generally favourable.,61/123,Fallout:the radiation that affects a place after a nuclear explosion:,放射性尘埃,Now:consequence,He predicted that the fallout from Watergate would hit both parties.,62/123,Fire storm:It takes place when a bomb explodes;strong winds rush into it to take the place of the hot air that is rising,causing the blaze to burn uncontrollably.,核弹引发大火暴,Now:strong reaction,63/123,The revelations about the CIAs activities in Chile broke in the press just as the fire storm over the Nixon pardon put an abrupt end to Congresss honey-moon with Gerald ford.,报界揭露了中央情报局在智利活动，与此同时，赦免尼克松所引发强烈反应使得国会同杰拉德。福特蜜月猝然终止。,64/123,Restriction of Meaning,65/123,Examples,liquor,Old Meaning,Specialized meaning,liquid,alcoholic drink,66/123,example,meat,Old Meaning,Specialized Meaning,food,Flesh of animals,67/123,word,Old meaning,Specialization,disease,discomfort,illness,poison,drink,Poisonous drink,wife,woman,married woman,accident,event,unlucky event,girl,A child,A female child,68/123,word,Old meaning,Specialization,starve,die,Die of hunger,stink,Any smell,Bad smell,success,Result,a good result,corpse,a human or,animal body,living or dead,a dead body,esp.of a,human being,69/123,当代英语中把日常生活用语转用到科技方面，这也是词义缩小一个现象。,70/123,A clean room 和 a white room,均为日常生活用语，现指用于精密零件制造“绝尘室”,“A clean room”or“a white room”,increasingly becomes shop talk.,清洁室或称白室正日益变成教授们行话。,71/123,Elevation of Meaning,Words often rise from a humble beginning to a position of greater importance.This change is called elevation of meaning.,72/123,Pioneer:foot soldier who cleared the way for any army by falling trees,etc.,A person who goes before,preparing the way for others,as a scientist doing,exploratory work,73/123,Fond:foolish,Tender and affectionate,74/123,minister,Old:an attendant,New:a person at the head of a department of a state.,75/123,marshall,Originally:,A horse tender,Present Meaning:,Officer of highest rank,76/123,craftsman,Old:a person good at,cheating,Now:a man who does,a skilled job,usu,with hands,77/123,shrewd,Old meaning:,wicked;,malicious,Now:,keen-witted;,clever or sharp,in practical affairs,78/123,nimble,Old meaning:,quick at stealing,present meaning:,quick of comprehension,79/123,见125页,Elevation of Meaning,80/123,Degradation of meaning,Words with a commendatory,meaning may become ones,with a derogatory sense.This,is called degradation of,meaning or deterioration,81/123,Four Kinds of Degradation of Meaning,A.A word falls into disrepute because,of social prejudice,82/123,Example,Villain,old meaning:a farmer,present Meaning:,a man guilty of,evil deeds,83/123,clown,Old meaning:a peasant,present Meaning:,a man who is clumsy and,behaves stupidly,84/123,wench,Old meaning:,a country girl,present meaning:,a girl of loose character,85/123,boor,Old meaning:,a farmhand,present meaning:one who is rough,impolite and clumsy,86/123,churl,Old meaning:,a farmhand,present meaning:,one who is rude and unfriendly,87/123,B.A word becomes less respectable,because of euphemism,Examples 见127页,88/123,C.Middle terms which are neutral in meaning and take on favorable or unfavorable meaning according to context,Examples见128页,89/123,Fortune,is a middle term,because it may be either good or bad but the adjective,fortunate,has a positive value.So with the word,luck,.The word refers to good or bad luck,especially to good luck.But the adjective,lucky,only denotes“having or bringing good luck”.,90/123,D.Sometimes a word shows deterioration in some of its uses,but maintain itself in others.,execute,To kill sb.as a,lawful punishment,To carry out an order,a plan,a piece of work,91/123,4-2-3,Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of words to Their Figurative Use,1.Metaphor,92/123,We know that words are used in two ways:literally and figuratively.When used literally,they have their natural and usual meaning.When used figuratively,they have a suggested meaning.,!,93/123,A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements,having at least one point of resemblance in appearance,quality,action or effect.,94/123,A metaphor,like a simile,also makes a comparison between two unlike elements,but unlike a simile,this comparison is implied rather than stated.,Metaphor?,95/123,There are three major groups of metaphors according to function and character:,A.Anthropomorphic metaphors,B.Animal metaphors,C.Synaesthetic metaphors,96/123,A.Anthropomorphic metaphors,Many inanimate objects are compared to the parts of the human body.,97/123,the eye of a needle 针眼,the eye of a potato马铃薯芽眼,the eye of the hurricane 风眼,the eye of a flower 花心,the eye of a peacocks tail孔雀翎斑,the eye of the revolution,革命中心,98/123,参见p.32 for More Examples,99/123,B.Animal metaphors,A great many inanimate objects,including various instruments,machines and parts of machines are called after an animal.,100/123,Cat-o-nine-tails;九尾鞭；香蒲,Cat-ice:,thin ice unsupported by water 薄冰,Catmint or catnip,猫薄荷,Catlap:slops,tea,etc.稀薄饮料,101/123,Another large group of animal names can be transferred into words indicating persons.,102/123,An ass:a stupid foolish person,A p