第十三章-War-and-Revolution--1914-1920ppt.pptx

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,Edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,20/9/1,#,CHAPTER,13,War,and,revolution,1914-1920,THE,WAR,EUROPE,EXPECTED,A,NEW,KIND,OF,WARFARE,RUSSIAN,REVOLUTION,AND,ALLIED,VICTORY,SETTLING,THE,PEACE,THE WAR EUROPE EXPECTED,In,1914,Europe stood confidently at the center of the world.Covering only 7 percent of the earths surface,Europe dominated the worlds trade and was actively exporting both its goods and its culture all over the globe.The values of nineteenth-century liberalism permeated the self-confident world view of European men and women in 1914.They assumed that they could discover the rules that governed the world and use them to fashion a better civilization.,Many Europeans took stability and harmony for granted as preconditions for progress;yet they also recognized the usefulness of war.No one expected or wanted a general war,but liberal values served the goals of limited war,just as,they,had justified imperial conquest.Statesmen decided that there were rules to the game of war that could be employed in the interests of statecraft.Science and technology also served the interests of war.Statesmen and generals were sure that modern weapons would prevent a long war.Superiority in armed force became a priority for European states seeking to protect the peace.,The alliance system was expected to defend the peace by defining the conditions of war.,As international tensions mounted,the hot summer days of 1914 were a time of hope and glory.The hope was that war,when it came,would be“over by Christmas.”,The,glory was the promise of ultimate victory in the“crusade for civilization”that each nations leaders held out to their people.When war did come in 1914,it was a choice,not an accident.Yet it was a choice that Europeans did not understand,one whose limits they could not control.Their unquestioned pride in reason and progress that ironically had led them to this war did not survive the four years of barbaric slaughter that followed.,i.,War,and,revolution,1914-1920,Separating,friends,from,foes,Alliance,system,of,blocks,Separating Friends from Foes,At,the end of,the,nineteenth century,the world,appeared,to,be coming together in a vast international network linked by commerce and finance.A system of alliances based on shared interests also connected states to one another.,After,1905,the intricate defensive alliances between and among the European states maintained the balance of power between two blocs of nations and helped to prevent one bloc from dominating the other.Yet by creating blocs,alliances identified foes as well as friends.,On,the eve of the war,France,Great Britain,and Russia stood together in the Triple Entente.Since 1882,Germany,Austria-Hungary,and Italy had joined forces in the Triple Alliance.,Alliances,Because of treaty commitments,no country expected to face war alone.,that,guaranteed military,support,permitted,weak nations to act irresponsibly,with the certainty that they would be defended by their more powerful partners.France and Germany were publicly committed to their weaker allies,Russia and Austria-Hungary,respectively,in supporting imperialist ambitions in the Balkans from which they themselves derived little direct benefit.,T,he,interlocking system of defensive alliances was structured to match strength against strengthFrance against Germany,for examplethereby making a prolonged war more likely than would be the case if a weak nation confronted a strong enemy.At base,the alliance system stood as both a defense against war and an invitation to it.,II.,A,NEW,KIND,OF,WARFARE,Technology,and,the,trenches,The,German,Offensive,War,on,the,Eastern,front,War,on,the,Western,front,technology,and the Trenches,In,nineteenth-century European warfare,armies,had,relied,on mobile cavalry and infantry units whose greatest asset was speed.Rapid advance had been decisive in the Prussian victory over the French in 1870,which had resulted in the formation of the German Empire,.,New Weapons.,The invention of new weaponry and heavy equipment had transformed war,but some old ways persisted.In their bright blue coats and red trousers,French and Belgian infantrymen made easy targets.Cavalry units,though largely outmoded,survived even as the railroad made the mobilization,organization,and deployment of,mass,armies possible.Specialists were needed to control the new war machines that heavy industry had created.,The ma-chine gun,The shovel and the machine gun transformed war.The ma-chine gun was not new in 1914,but its strategic value was not fully appreciated before then.The British had used the Maxim machine gun in Africa,but strategists failed to ask how such a destructive weapon would work against an enemy that was equally armed with machine guns instead of spears,.,The technology that had been viewed as a proof of progress was now channeled toward engineering new instruments of death.,The German Offensive,Germany,on Two Fronts.,In the years preceding the war,the German General Staff,unwilling to concentrate all of their troops in the west,had modified the Schlieffen Plan by committing divisions to Germanys eastern frontier.The absence of the full German fighting force in the west did not appreciably slow the German advance through Belgium.Yet the Germans had underestimated both the cost of holding back the French in Alsace-Lorraine and the difficulty of maneuvering German forces and transporting supplies in an offensive war.Eventually,unexpected Russian advances in the east also siphoned off troops from the west.German forces in the west were so weakened by their offensive that they were unable to swing west of Paris,as planned,and instead chose to enter the French capital from the northeast by crossing the Marne River.This shift exposed the German First Army on its western flank and opened up a gap on its eastern flank.,War on the Eastern Front,War,on Germanys eastern front was a mobile,war,fought,over vast distances.The Russian army was the largest in the world.Yet it was crippled from the outbreak of the war by inadequate supplies and poor leadership,.,War on the Western Front,Along hundreds of miles of trenches,the French,andBritish,tried repeatedly to expel the Germans from northern France and Belgium.Long periods of inactivity were punctuated by orgies of heavy bloodletting.The German phrase,“All quiet on the western front,”was used in military communiques to describe those periods of uneasy calm before the next violent storm.,III.,RUSSIAN,REVOLUTION,AND,ALLIED,VICTORY,Revolution,in,Russia,The,last,Tsar,Lenin,and,the,October,Revolution,U.S.,declares,war.,German,defeat,THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND ALLIED VICTORY,For,the Allies,1917 began with a series of crises.Under the hammering of one costly offensive after another,French morale had collapsed and military discipline was deteriorating.A combined German-Austrian force had eliminated the Allied states of Serbia and Romania.The Italians experienced a military debacle at Caporetto and were effectively out of the war.The peril at sea had increased with the opening of unrestricted U-boat warfare against Allied and neutral ships.,Two events proved decisive in 1917 in determining the course of the war:the collapse of the Russian army and,the,entry of the United States.Russia,in the throes of domestic revolution,ceased to be an effective opponent,and Germany was able to concentrate more of its resources in the west,fight a one-front war,and utilize the foodstuffs and raw materials of its newly acquired Russian territories to buoy its home front.The war had gone from a stalemate to a state of crisis for both sides.Every belligerent state was experiencing war weariness,and pressures to end the war increased everywhere.Attrition was not working.Attacks were not working.Every country suffered from strikes,food riots,military desertions,and mutinies.Defeatism was everywhere on the rise.,Revolution in Russia,In,order to understand Russias withdrawal from,the,war,it is important to understand that Russias ruler,Tsar Nicholas II(18941917),presided over an empire in the process of modernization with widening social divisions in 1914.Nicholas believed that a short,successful war would strengthen his monarchy against the domestic forces of change.Little did Nicholas know,when he committed Russia to the path of war instead of revolution,that he had guaranteed a future of war,and,revolution.He was delivering his nation up to humiliating defeat in global war and a devastating civil war.His own days were numbered,with his fate to be determined at the hands of a Marxist dictatorship.,The Last Tsar.,In,1914,Russia was considered backward by the standards of Western industrial society.Russia still recalled a recent feudal past.The serfs had been freed in the 1860s,but the nature of the emancipation exacerbated tensions in the countryside and peasant hunger for land.Russias limited,rapid industrialization in the 1880s and 1890s was an attempt to catch up with Great Britain,France,and Germany as a world industrial power.But the speed of such change brought with it severe dislocations,especially in the industrial city of Moscow and the capital,St.Petersburg.,Lenin and the Opposition to War.,The,leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov(18701924).Best known by his revolutionary name,Lenin,he had just returned from Switzerland to reassume leadership.Forty-seven years old at the time of the revolution,Lenin had spent most of his life in exile or in prison.More a pragmatist than a theoretician,he argued for a disciplined party of professional revolutionaries,a vanguard who would lead the peasants and workers in a socialist revolution against capitalism.In contrast to the Mensheviks,he argued that the time was ripe for a successful revolution and that it could be achieved through the soviets.Since they represented peasants and workers,he argued,they provided the democratic majority base needed for a true Marxist revolution.,The October Revolution.,The,second revolution came in November(October in the Russian calendar).This time it was not a spontaneous street demonstration but the seizure of the Russian capital by the Red Guards of the Petrograd Soviet.The revolution was carefully planned and orchestrated by Lenin and his vanguard of Bolsheviks,who now possessed majorities in the soviets in Moscow,Petrograd,and other industrial centers.Having returned surreptitiously from Finland,Lenin moved through the streets of Petrograd disguised in a curly wig and head bandages,watching the Red Guard seize centers of communication and public buildings.The military action was directed by Lev Bronstein,better known by his revolutionary name,Leon Trotsky(18791940).The Bolshevik chairman of the Petrograd Soviet,Trotsky used the Red Guard to seize political control and arrest the members of the Provisional Government.Kerenski escaped and fled the city.The takeover was achieved with almost no bloodshed and was immediately endorsed by an All-Russian Congress of Soviets,which consisted of representatives of local soviets from throughout the nation who were in session amid the takeover of the capital.A Bolshevik regime under Lenin now ruled Russia.Tsar Nicholas II and the royal family were executed by Bolshevik revolutionaries in July 1918.,The United States Declares War.,German,machinations in Mexico were also revealed on 25 February 1917,with the interception of a telegram from Arthur Zimmermann(18641940),the German foreign minister.The telegram communicated Germanys willingness to support Mexicos recovery of“lost territory”in New Mexico,Arizona,and Texas in return for Mexican support,of,Germany in the event of U.S.entry into the war.American citizens were outraged.On 2 April 1917,Wilson,who had won the presidential election of 1916 on the promise of peace,asked the U.S.Congress for a declaration of war against Germany.,The U.S.entry is significant not just because it provided reinforcements,fresh troops,and fresh supplies to the beleaguered Allies.From a broader perspective,it marked a shift in the nature of international politics:Europe could no longer handle its own affairs and settle its own differences without outside help.,German Defeat.,Known,as the Ludendorff offensive,after the general who devised it,the final German push began in March 1918.Secretly amassing tired troops from the eastern front who had been pulled back after the Russian withdrawal,the Germans counted on the element of surprise to enable them to break through a weak sector in the west.On the first day of spring,Ludendorff struck.The larger German force gained initial success against weakened British and French forces.Yet in spite of breaches in defense,the Allied line held.The Allied Supreme Commander,General Ferdinand Foch(18511929),coordinated the war effort that withstood German offensives throughout the spring and early summer of 1918.,IV.,SETTLING,THE,PEACE,Wilsons,Fourteen,Points,The,League,of,Nations,The,Treaty,of,Versailles,SETTLING THE PEACE,In,the aftermath of war,the task of the victors was to devise a settlement that would guarantee peace and stabilize Europe.Russia was excluded from the negotiations because of its withdrawal from the Allied camp in 1917,but much of what happened in the peace settlements reflected concern with the challenge of revolution that the new Soviet,Russiarepresented,.A variety of goals marked the peace talks:the idealistic desire to create a better world,the patriotic pursuit of self-defense,the commitment to self-determination of nations(the right of a people to determine their own form of government),and the fixing of blame for the outbreak of the war.In the end,the peace treaties satisfied none of these goals.Meanwhile,Russias new leaders carefully watched events in the West,looking for opportunities that might permit them to extend their revolution to central Europe.,Wilsons Fourteen Points,President,Wilson,who captured international,attention,with,his liberal views on the peace,was the central figure of the conference.He was firmly committed to the task of shaping a better world.Before the end of the war,he had proclaimed the,Fourteen Points,as a guideline to the future peace and as an appeal to the people of Europe to support his policies.Believing that secret diplomacy and the alliance system were responsible for the events leading up to the declaration of war in 1914,he put forward as a basic principle“open covenants of peace,openly arrived at.”Other points included the reduction of armaments,freedom of commerce and trade,self-determination of peoples,and a general association of nations to guarantee the peace.The Fourteen Points were,above all,an idealistic statement of the principles for a good and lasting peace.Point 14,which stipulated“mutual guarantees of independence and territorial integrity”through the establishment of the League of Nations,was endorsed by the peace conference.The League of Nations,which the United States refused