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医学英语(下册)课文翻译
UNIT 1 疾病的介绍
1 人体是一个艺术的杰作。我们对身体的功能了解越深,就越赏识。即使在生病时,身体在故障修复和补偿方面表现也相当出色。身体内不断发生变化,然而,一个叫内环境稳定(稳态)的平稳状态能大抵保持平衡。机体内环境稳定出现某种重大的紊乱,就能引起各种各样的反应,这些反应常常促使疾病的体征和症状出现。比如,由于运动员对氧气的需求增加,他们体内的红细胞计数就会异常升高。这是一个使更多血红蛋白循环的自然补偿机制,但它却是红细胞增多症的一个症状。
2 当一个器官需要做更多工作时,它往往会增大,肥大。心脏会因为长期的高血压而增大,因为它必须不间断地克服巨大的阻力把血液输送到全身。当瓣膜存在缺陷时,心肌同样也会肥大,因为那些要么太宽,要么太窄的瓣膜需要额外的抽吸作用。如果一个肾衰竭了,另一个肾就会增大以满足身体的需要,并弥补那个有缺陷的肾。当流向这两个肾的血液不足时,它们会通过分泌荷尔蒙(激素)的方式帮助血压升高。然而,如果某个器官或身体的某个部位没有得到使用,它就会萎缩,或者,也就是说,面积变小或功能下降。
3 血液在维持内环境稳定方面发挥着几个作用。当组织受到创伤,损伤,或者感染时,血流就会积聚在受损区域。这是极其重要的,因为血液携带了专门用于清除有害物质和细胞碎片的细胞。血液中的其他细胞则产生抗体,以抵抗致病生物的入侵。
4 疾病是某个身体部位,生理系统,或整个身体的不健康状态,其中结构或功能发生紊乱。疾病经常始于细胞水平。一个异常的基因不管是因遗传所得,还是因环境因素引起突变或变异,都能启动疾病程序。比如,当基因信息遭到侵袭(常被病毒侵袭),癌症的发生会伴随着细胞的疯长。新的研究方法使某些疾病能与异常基因的发现联系起来。疾病可以是一种结构性的异常,比如,先天性心脏缺陷,也可以是没有器质性改变的功能性病变。疾病可能是一种结构性的异常,比如,先天性心脏缺陷,也可能是没有器质性变化的功能性病变,比如,高血压或外伤。异常的组织或功能称之为病变,一个病变可能是一处创伤,损伤,或一种病理疾病。
5 关于疾病,一个重要方面是它的病因学或病因。许多熟悉的疾病是由病原体造成的。普通感冒和流感都是病毒感染,但是脓肿和脓毒性咽喉炎是由细菌造成的,而真菌和寄生虫分别是运动员足部疾病和蠕虫病的病原体。一种疾病或异常病变的原因及进展称之为疾病的发病机制。
6 病理学是研究疾病特点、原因和影响的一个医学分支。细胞病理学家研究的是细胞或显微镜的变化,而临床病理学家则利用实验室试验和方法进行诊断。一位病理学家可能专长于验尸或手术上的研究结果。
7 许多疾病是由遗传造成的,经缺陷基因遗传。血友病、镰刀状细胞性贫血和色盲都属于基因病。智力上的或身体上的先天性缺陷可能是由于母亲妊娠期间感染风疹或德国麻疹、吸毒、过度饮酒所导致的发育性失调。某些先天性缺陷是由于母亲分娩期间发生意外,比如供氧遭到干扰而引起的。
8 环境因素可以导致许多疾病。比如,皮肤癌是由于过度暴露于太阳的紫外线下而引起的,尤其发生在肤色浅的人群中。白血病的发生是放射科医师的职业病,癌症的发生与石棉暴露有关。研究发现,在工业废弃物中发现的许多化学物质也致病。
9 因营养不良导致的许多疾病并不都是由于缺少食物,而是由于人们不能运用食物,这部分将在后面章节解释。营养缺陷疾病的体征常常伴随慢性酒精中毒。
10 应激对整个身体起反面的作用:它降低免疫系统抵御疾病的能力。应激可致几种胃肠道系统疾病,比如:胃溃疡和溃疡性结肠炎。它同样可加重呼吸道疾病(如哮喘)和其他过敏性疾病。如果疾病的原因不详,称之为原发性疾病。
11 关于疾病,另一个重要方面是是它的表现方式:即体征和症状。体征是在体检时观察到的关于疾病的客观证据,比如:异常的脉搏率或呼吸率,发烧和苍白。而症状是病人能感知的疾病指征,比如:疼痛,头晕和瘙痒。这本书试图将疾病的体征和症状与疾病特定的机能障碍联系在一起。比如,为什么贫血病人会感到虚弱无力、疲惫不堪和呼吸急促?为什么甲状腺功能亢进(甲亢)会导致体重下降、紧张和出汗过量?为什么在某些心脏疾病中脚踝会肿胀?
12 在一些疾病中,某些体征和症状会同时出现,多种症状综合在一起称之为综合征。蒙古症(先天愚型)或唐氏综合征这种疾病具有多种并发的体征,其中最显著的是:智力发育障碍,舌体变大,舌头外伸,眼睛具有特异性的外观(斜视)。
13 诊断,即确定疾病的性质,基于诸多因素,如体征、症状、常常还有实验室检查结果。实验室化验包括一些我们熟悉的程序,比如,尿分析法,血液化学,心电描记术和放射照相术。像计算机化断层显像(CT扫描),放射照相术,超声波和核医学这些全新的诊断性成像技术具有造影功能,这在以前是无法实现的。用于确诊各种疾病的诊断程序在每个系统中都有涉及。医生也可以从体检、与病人及其家属谈话、查阅病人及其家族的病史中获得信息,以便对疾病进行诊断。已经做出诊断的医生要说明疾病可能的预后,或预期的病程,和疾病的后果。
14 通过开处方,以确定最有效的治疗方案,方案可包括:药物治疗、手术、放射疗法、或心理咨询。建议病人改变生活习惯,比如:暴食、吸烟、酗酒、或者可能的话,避免压力。
15 疾病的过程各异,它可能发病急,病程短,这种情况属于急性病。它还可能不知不觉地发生,持续时间长,或是慢性的。“chronic”这个术语源于表示时间的希腊词“chronos”。可致死的疾病叫做末期或晚期疾病。慢性病的体征和症状在缓和期有时会减轻,在恶化期可能会再次出现,多么严重都可能。某些疾病如白血病和溃疡性结肠炎一个重要特点就是具有缓和期和恶化期。有时,一种疾病在明显终止后几周或几个月会复发。
16 并发症也常常出现,这意味着一位已患某种病的患者还会生另一种病。严重骨折,并卧床不起的患者往往会得肺炎,它是不活动的并发症。腮腺炎可能会并发睾丸感染,尤其是在青春期后。一般情况下,白血病、癌症和慢性肾病都伴有贫血。某些诸如肾结石、心脏病和前列腺增大等发病诱因常伴有细菌感染。
17 一种疾病的后果叫做后遗症,一种遗患。风湿热之后心脏遭受的永久损伤是一种后遗症,正如瘫痪也是小儿麻痹症的后遗症。由输卵管严重炎症引起的不孕不育症也是一种后遗症。
18 疾病的分类方法有多种。比如,可以根据一般机制考虑疾病,也可以将之放在生理系统中考虑,因为它们是其中的一个因素。一般的疾病包括:过敏、营养不良、肥胖症和酗酒。
19 了解疾病及其病因、对身体有何影响、有效的治疗方案、和可能的预后,应该有助于医务人员减轻患者的痛苦、焦虑和恐惧感。
20 在机体不断变化的条件下,身体试图维持内环境的稳定。当它感觉到某个器官功能存在缺陷,便会尽力去补偿。当身体的内环境稳定中出现重大紊乱时,发生的反应可能会与疾病的体征相似。
21 疾病是某个身体部位、某个系统或整个身体的不健康状态,它可能由结构性异常、功能性病变,或外伤引起。致病因素有很多:病原体、遗传、环境、营养不良和应激。有时,病因不详。病原学研究的是疾病的原因,而病理学是研究疾病的病原学、特点和影响,即发病机制的一门医学分支。
22 疾病体现在体征和症状,及其存在的主、客观指征上。在某些疾病中,比如,唐氏综合征,多种体征和症状同时出现。
23 疾病的诊断基于多种因素:体征和症状、实验室化验、体检,和病人及其家族的病史。接着,要开处方以确定最合适的治疗方案。疾病具有急性和慢性之分,慢性病的体征常常会缓解,或者恶化。理解疾病的方方面面能够帮助医学专家全面地为病人服务。
UNIT 4 Hyperactivity Disorder
多动症
Symptoms and Signs
1 For over 50 years physicians have been evaluating and treatingchildren who show variouscombinations of motoric overactivity, impulsivity, distractibility, andinattentiveness. During that time, the terminology describing these childrenhas changed, reflecting the shifting ideas about etiology and about therelationship of the symptoms of overactivity to the symptoms of inattentiveness.Called at different times minimal brain damage, minimal brain dysfunction,hyperactive child syndrome, hyperactive reaction of childhood, andattention-deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity, the syndrome is nowknown as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In DSM-IV,ADHD is divided into three subtypes:a combinedtype (most frequent), a pre- dominantly inattentive type, and a predominantlyhyperactive-impulsive type. This most recent diagnostic terminology reflectscurrent thinking about the possible heterogeneityof this disorder.
症状和体征
1 内科医生们一直在进行着对一类孩子长达五十多年的诊断和治疗,这些孩子都体现出了一种或几种如下特点,即:肢体运动过于活跃,性格易冲动,注意力涣散,和粗心大意。在那段时间里,用来描述这一类孩子的医学术语发生了改变,反映出了对于这一现象的病因学研究以及对于过于活跃和疏忽大意这些症状之间关系研究的观点的的不断转换。在不同的时期曾经被叫做轻微脑功能损伤,轻度脑障碍,儿童多动综合症,儿童多动反应症和伴有或不伴有多动症的注意力缺陷障碍的这一综合症,如今被叫做注意力缺陷多动症(简称ADHD)。在第四版的精神疾病诊断准则手册中,ADHD被分为三个小的类型:组合类型(注意力缺失合并过动型,这也是最常见的类型),注意力缺失型,以及过动型。这种最新的诊断术语反映了当前对这种疾病可能存在的异质性的观点。
2 Clinically, these children are brought to the doctor when their parentsor teachers complain that they are hard to discipline, do not follow directions,seem to dawdle over the simplesttasks, leave projects and chores incomplete, forget to bring homeworkassignments back and school notices home, and then forget to bring homework toclass. They may impulsively touch or bump into other children, dash into thestreet, or be unable to wait for their turn in a game. When motoricoveractivity is present the child will fidget,squirm, and be “all over the place”.Often social problems with peers, negative relations with family members, poorschool achievement, and diminished self-esteem are the result of the coreproblems in attention, distractibility, impulsivity, and overactivity.
2 在临床表现上, 当这些孩子的父母或者老师抱怨孩子不遵守纪律,不听从教导,做最简单的任务也磨磨蹭蹭,不完成任务,总是忘记把家庭作业和学校通知带回家,以及忘记把作业带回学校的时候,他们会带孩子去看医生。这些孩子可能会冲动的去拍打或者冲撞其他的孩子,冲到街道中间,或者做游戏的时候不能够安分的等待自己的次序。当肢体运动过于活跃的时候,儿童会变得坐立不安,身体来回扭动,并且“无处不在”。粗心大意,注意力不集中,易冲动和过于活跃的核心问题往往会导致这类儿童与同龄人之间产生的各种社会问题,和家人关系不融洽,学习成绩差,以及自尊心削弱等问题。
3 Although the symptoms must have been present before age 7 for thediagnosis to be made, the disorder is frequently not noticed until the childenters school, perhaps because school requires more controlled, directed behaviorand because teachers observe the child acting differently from other same-agepeers. However, with increased media focus on ADHD, and with more childrenbeing in school-like settings at an earlier age, some clinicians are seeing anincrease in referrals of youngerchildren for evaluation of ADHD-like symptoms. For severely affectedpreschoolers, the diagnosis may not be difficult, but in less obvious cases,parents may resist believing the child has any problems or may be convinced thechild will grow out of it. Conversely, some referrals may be the result ofparental intolerance for normative preschool exuberance.
3 尽管对于将要做出的诊断来说,这一疾病一定是在7岁之前出现,但是通常只有儿童进入学校之后这些症状才会引起注意。或许是因为学校要求学生的行为更加可受控制的,可以被指导,并且因为老师们观察到某个儿童的行为和其他同龄儿童的不同。然而,随着媒体对于ADHD的日益关注和许多儿童在很小的年龄就处在一个类似学校的环境中。一些临床医生要接待不断增加的年幼的转诊病人,对类似ADHD 的症状进行诊断。对于症状明显的学龄前儿童,诊断可能不难,但是在一些稍微不明显的病例中,父母可能不愿相信孩子出现了任何问题或者认为随着孩子的长大,这些现象会自动消失。相反,一些转诊病人可能正是父母对规范的学前教育繁荣不够宽容的结果。
4 In the evaluating physician’s office, thechild may or may not appear squirmy, noisy, distractible, or inattentive.Because a medical examining room is usually quiet, with few distractions, thechild is less apt to exhibit the problem behaviors there than in a noisyclassroom surrounded by other children.
4 在内科医生的办公室里,儿童可能会也可能不会出现坐立不安,爱喧闹,注意力不集中或者是粗心大意等症状,因为医学检测室一般是安静的,几乎没有引起注意力分散的事物。和处于一个挤满了儿童的喧闹的房间里相比,在检测室的儿童不易于表现出那些问题行为。
Differential Diagnosis
5 Attention-deficit/hyperactivitydisorder is a clinical diagnosis based on the family’s description of the child’sbehavior, the school report, the clinician’s observation, and, at times,comprehensive testing. There are no specific tests for ADHD. However, Conners’parent Questionnaire and Teacher Rating Scale can help elicit a quantitativeassessment of the specific ways the behaviors may show up.
鉴别诊断
5 ADHD是基于对儿童行为的家庭描述,学校报告,内科医生观察和间或全面检测的一种临床诊断。目前还没有对于ADHD的具体的测试方法。但是,Conners父母调查问卷和教师评定量表能够帮助导出对这些行为可能表现出的具体方式的一种定量评估。
6 Varioustypes of continuous performance tests (CPTs) assess the child’s ability to payattention to routine, uninteresting stimuli, and components of manypsychological tests (e.g., trail making mazes) assess attentional abilities.
6 各种类型的连续的性能测试(CPTS)对儿童把注意力集中在常规事务和乏味的刺激上的能力进行评估,许多心理测试的一些组成部分(例如,走迷宫)也能对注意力进行评估。
7 Differential diagnosis includes hearingproblem, impaired vision, poor nutrition, language-processing problems, thyroiddysfunction, pinworms, andadjustment disorder; ADHD must also be differentiated from several conditionsthat can be present concurrently, such as learning disorder, conduct disorder,oppositional defiant disorder,anxiety disorder and mood disorder.
7 鉴别诊断包括听力问题,视力受损,营养不良,语言处理问题,甲状腺功能障碍,蛲虫和适应障碍; ADHD 也要和一些能够同时出现的状况区别开来,例如学习障碍,品行障碍,对立违抗性障碍,焦虑症和情绪障碍。
Epidemiology
8 Thisdisorder is more common in boys than in girls, can be found in allsocioeconomic groups, and has a prevalence of around 3%—5% in school-aged children. Concurrent problems arefrequent, and around two-thirds of ADHD children have another psychiatricdiagnosis. These include conduct disorder (most common), learning disorder,oppositional defiant disorder, and mood and anxiety disorders. The etiology isnot clear, although there appears to be an increased family incidence infirst-degree relatives. Some other causative factors that have been consideredinclude prenatal or perinatalinsult, prenatal drug and alcohol exposure, and lead poisoning. Contrary to arecent popular theory, food additives and sugar are not found to cause ADHD inmost children.
流行病学
8 这一症状在男孩中间比在女孩中间更加常见,并且在所有社会经济群体当中都能被发现,而且在学龄儿童当中的发病率为大约百分之三到百分之五。通常还会伴有并发症,大约三分之二的患有ADHD的儿童有其他的精神病诊断,包括:品行障碍(最常见), 学习障碍, 对立违抗性障碍,以及焦虑症和情绪障碍。尽管看上去似乎ADHD在一级亲属中的发病率有所提高,这一疾病的病因还不清晰。一些被列入考虑的其他诱因包括产前或产后损伤,产前药物和酒精危害和铅中毒。和最近流行的一种理论相反,在对许多儿童的研究当中,食物添加剂和糖没有被发现会导致ADHD。
Etiology
9 Investigationsinto the biological factors involved in ADHD have focused on dopamine andnoradrenergic systems, and when aggression coexists, on serotonin as well.Findings from brain-imaging studies have been variable. In a study thatexamined parents of children with ADHD who self-reported ADHD symptoms whenthey (the parents) were children, positron-emissiontomographic scans administered during attention-requiring tasks revealeddecreased glucose metabolism in the frontal and prefrontal cortex.
病因学
9 对于ADHD的生物学因素的研究集中在多巴胺和去甲肾上腺素系统上,当攻击性行为同时存在时,也会涉及羟色胺。脑成像研究的结果是易变的。在一项对自己承认小时候也患有ADHD的ADHD患童父母的的研究中,在完成需要注意力的任务过程中进行的正电子放射断层扫描显示额叶和前额皮层的葡萄糖代谢作用减少了。
Treatment & Prognosis
10 Treating the child with ADHD requires a multimodal approach.Psychopharmacological treatment with psychostimulants(methylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, and pemoline) is widely used and iseffective in up to 90% of ADHD children. Other medications used in clinicalpractice include some antidepressants (imipramine, desipramine, and bupropion)and clonidine. The purpose ofmedication should be explained to both parent and child, and its effectivenessshould be monitored by home and school reports. Medication alone is rarelysufficient, since parents will need counseling on methods of managing theirchild’s behaviors and breaking the frequent patterns of dysfunctionalinteractions that have evolved over the years. A variety of behavioral management techniques have been used withsuccess, such as contingentreinforcement, time-outs, and daily reports from school to parents. Teachersand parents may need information about optimizing nondistracting environmentsfor schoolwork and homework. Children also benefit from counseling to addressissues of decreased self-esteem, poor peer relations, and expectation offailure. Presently multicenter studies are in progress to assess the efficacyof various combinations of therapeutic modalities.
治疗和预后诊断
10 对于患有ADHD的儿童的治疗需要一种多模式的方法。运用精神药理疗法并搭配一些精神兴奋剂药物(如哌啶醋酸甲酯,右旋安非他命和匹莫林)的方法是被广泛应用并且在高达百分之九十的患ADHD儿童当中是有效的。其他一些用在临床实践上的药物还包括抗抑郁剂(如米帕明, 地昔帕明和安非他酮)和可乐定。药物治疗的目的应该向患病儿童及其父母说明,治疗的效果应该有家庭和学校共同监督。单纯的药物治疗并不够,因为父母需要对控制他们孩子行为的方法以及打破未能得到治疗的患病儿童多年来演变而形成的功能失调性互动的常规模式的建议。多种行为管理技术已经成功的得到运用,例如,后效强化,暂停法,和学校给父母的日常报告。老师和父母们也需要能够优化儿童们完成学校和家庭作业的不容易导致注意力分散的各种环境的信息。儿童也能够从哪些应对自尊心下降,与同龄人关系恶劣和期望失败的建议中获益。目前多中心的研究正在进行当中以对治疗方法的各种组合方式的功效进行评估。
11 The prognosis for children with ADHD is controversial. It waspreviously thought that children outgrew their symptoms in adolescence, and itwas possible to stop medications as the child got older. Recently there hasbeen increasing focus on adolescents and adults treated as children whocontinue to show some or all of the symptoms of ADHD on follow-up. In addition,adults are being identified who were untreated as children but manifestsymptoms of impulsivity and poor attention, sometimes with coexistentantisocial personality disorder and substance abuse.
11 对于ADHD儿童的预后诊断是有争议的。以前认为儿童的症状会在青春期消失,并且当儿童长大的时候可以停止药物治疗。近来越来越多的注意力集中在了一些青年和成年人身上,他们小时候接受过治疗,但是在后续过程中依然表现出一些或者所有的ADHD症状。除此之外,一些小时候显示出性格易冲动和注意力不集中的症状但未接受治疗的成年人被发现有时候会伴有反社会人格障和滥用药物的症状。
Illustrative Case: ADHD-Hyperactive-ImpulsiveType
12 A7-year-old boy was referred by his first grade teacher because of behavioralproblems in the classroom. Her note said “He’s up when all the other kids areup, but he’s up all the rest of the time too.” In a phone conference shedescribed him as a “wiggle worm” who was either squirming in his seat orrunning around the classroom during assignments. She also described hisproblems with classmates, who resented his rambunctiousbehavior during recess. His parents said that he had always been a very activechild at home but were surprised at the teacher’s complaint because theythought he would settle down once he started school. They were concerned about hisimpulsivity and noted that he had almost been hit by a car when he dartedacross a street trying to reach a friend on the other side.
病例:过动型ADHD
12 一个7岁的男孩因为课堂上的行为问题被他一年级的老师归为这一类型。老师给他的评语中说:“当其他的孩子站起来的时候他站起来,但当其他孩子都坐下的时候他仍旧一直站着。”在一次电话会议当中老师把他形容成“一只蠕动的虫子”。他要么在自己的座位上扭来扭去,要么就在做功课的时候在教室来到处乱跑。老师也描述了他和同学之间的问题,同学们都非常讨厌他在休息时的喧闹行为。男孩的父母说他在家里就是一个非常好动的孩子,但是他们对于老师的抱怨感到惊讶,因为他们认为一旦小男孩开始上学就会变得安静下来。他们对于小男孩冲动的性格非常担心并且提到小男孩曾经猛冲过街道想要和另一边的朋友碰面的时候差点被一辆汽车撞到。
Illustrative Case:ADHD-Inattentive Type
13 An 8-year-old girl, the only child of an intact middle-class family,was brought to the child psychiatry outpatient clinic at the medical centerbecause she was doing very poorly in the second grade, and the school wasconsidering having her repeat the year. As part of the standard assessmentpackage, the teacher and parents had each been asked to complete the Conner’sTeacher Rating Scale and Parent Questionnaire respectively. They had rated manybehaviors associated with ADHD as present “pretty much” or “very much”.
病例:注意力缺失型ADHD
13 一个八岁的小女孩,一个完整的中产阶级家庭的唯一孩子,被带到了医疗中心的儿童精神科门诊诊所。因为她二年级的成绩太差,学校正在考虑让她留级。作为标准评估系统的一部分,老师和父母被要求分别完成了Conners教师评定测量表和父母症状问卷。他们描述很多与ADHD相关的行为用到了相当多或者非常多这类字眼。
14 The parents, who both worked , described getting ready to leave forschool each morning as “chaos” because their child was constantly losing orforgetting her school books, mittens,or teachers’ notices, and no one would realize the item was gone until the lastminute. Similarly, evenings were unpleasant because their daughter, who was supposedto do her homework after school at a baby sitter’s home, never got it donedespite multiple reminders. The stress of coping with these problems had begunto have a negative impact on their marital relati
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