TG-grammar阶段PPT课件.ppt

4.8 Five stages of development of TG grammar1.Five stages of development1)The Classical Theory,which aims to make linguistics a science.Syntactic Structures,1975 2)The Standard Theory,which deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,19653)The Extended Standard Theory,which focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar Studies on Semantic in Generative Grammar,1972 4)The Revised Extended Standard Theory(or GB),which focuses on Government and Binding Lectures on Government and Binding,1981 5)The Minimalist Program,which is a further revision of the previous theory.The Minimal Program,1995 Minimalist Inquiries:The Framework,19982.4.8.1The classical Theory1)It aims to make linguistics a science:2)Its features:Emphasizing on generative ability of language Introducing transformational rules Grammatical description regardless of meaning3)Chomsky put forward three kinds of grammar:Finite state grammar Phrase structure grammar Transformational grammar3.4.8.2Three kinds of grammar1)The finite state grammar It is the simplest type of grammar which,with a finite amount of apparatus,can generate an infinite number of sentences.But they all are very simple in their structure.Chomsky devises this grammar to show the impracticality of organising a language from a left-to-right order.4.2)The finite state grammarIt is appropriate to describe“stimulus-response”process of learning,but it is inappropriate to explain the complexities of the human cognitive system.It contains deep structure and surface structure.lDeep structure:the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.lSurface structure:the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction 5.Deep structure and surface structure In brief,the sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structures.But the deep structure means the fact that speakers try to convey the message of the sentence.That is to say,the surface structure of language determines the form of sentences,while deep structure determines meaning of sentences.For example,(1).The glass is broken(2).Breaking the glass Though the form of sentences is different,but the message conveyed is same.The fact that we know the glass is broken is the deep structure of sentence,but the two forms of sentences that convey the fact is the surface structure.6.3)Phrase structure grammar It consists solely of phrase-structure rules that formalise some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis.This grammar has greater generative powers than a finite state grammar.7.4)Phrase structure grammarThe phrase structure rules(also called rewriting rules)are as follows:a.SNP+VP b.VP Verb+NP c.NP NP(single)NP(plural)d.NP(s)D+N e.NP(p)D+N+s f.D the g.N man,ball,door,dog,book,h.Verb aux+V i.V hit,take,bite,eat,walk,j.Aux Tense(+M)(+have+en)(+be+ing)k.Tense Present Past l.M will,can,may,shall,must,8.5)Phrase structure grammar Phrase structure rules are called rewriting rules.The generative process of a sentence is the process of rewriting one symbol into another.For example,how to form the sentence“The man hit the ball”?We must use rules and represent them by“bracketing”and“diagramming”.9.The Generative Process of A Sentence:Bracketing:(NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball)Diagraming:S NP VP Det N Verb NP Det N the man hit the ball 10.6)Transformational rules(T-rules)are the operations that add，delete or change elements in one structure to produce another structure.It refers to all the rules that apply after all lexicon items have been inserted into the structures.7)Chomsky has listed 16 transformational rules for English.For example:Jack has not finished his work.The first part is an NP.The second part can be analysed into a“concord element”(For realisation of the inflected forms like“has”,etc.),represented by C,plus a modal verb,have,that is,“C+have”.The third part can be represented with an ellipsis,for it is not important.11.Structural analysis:NP-C+have-Structural changes:X1-X2-X3X1-X2+nt-X3Each parts substitued with X1,X2,X3The transformational rule for negation ofthe former12.8)Phrase structure grammarTwo kinds of transformational rule:obligatory and optional the transformation of negation,the passive voice,etc.The transformationof auxiliaries and particles13.4.8.3 Some defects in the theoryThe transformational rules are too powerful.The rules may generate ill-formed sentences as well as well-formed ones.For example,with the rules SNP+VP,and VPV+NP,there might be generated the following two:S S NP VP NP VP V NP V NP John drink wine wine drink JohnThe transformational rules for the passive voice cannot be used at will,for some of the English verbs do not have passive structures.14.S NP Aux VP Det N PPThe mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.S NP Aux VP NP NP The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.phrase structure is too flexible15.4.9 The standard Theory1)Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components:syntactic,phonological and semantic.The relationships of the three components can be illustrated by the following diagram:16.Syntactic componentBase ComponentRewriting RulesLexiconDeep StructureT-RulesSurface StructureSemantic ComponentPhonological RulesSemantic RepresentationPhonological RepresentationRe-writing Rules generate deep structure of sentence,transformational rules transformdeep structure into surface structure.semantic component makes semantic interpretationon deep structure,phonological component makes phonological interpretation on surfacestructure.17.2)Its advantages over the Classical TheoryTransformation can only change the forms of sentences and are not allowed to alter the meaning.To rule out the generation of sentences like Wine drinks John,there is now a selectional restriction to ensure that the animate noun appears before the verb and inanimate noun appears after the verb.Restrictions are put on transformations in order not to generate ill-formed sentences.According to re-writing rules,sentences can be embedded,thus,the theory now covers not only simple sentences but also complex ones.The rule are properly ordered and there is a set order in which the rules apply.18.3)Problems unsolved in the theoryThe transformational rules are still too powerful,for they can move or delete linguistic segments,change the categories,keep the original meaning intact,and vary according to specific circumstances.Derived nouns and their corresponding verbs are irregular not only in terms of syntactic features,but also in phonological and semantic relations,which is ignored in the Standard Theory.19.The Standard Theory holds that semantic interpretations are determined by the deep structure,and transformational process will not change the sentence meaning.Later this was found to be impossible.Because any kind of transformations will change the sentence meaning.For example,sentence“(1)Everyone loves someone”is different from“(2)Someone is loved by everyone”.The Standard Theory cannot explain gapped structures as:John ate some spaghetti,and Mary some macaroni.Investigations of more type of rules showed that many transformational rules must have complex constraints in order that they do not produce ungrammatical sentences.20.5.1 The Extended Standard Theory and Later Theories21.5.1.1The Extended Standard Theory1)In the Extended Standard Theory,Chomsky revised his Standard Theory twice.2)In his first revision,Chomsky moved part of semantic interpretation to the surface structure.Let us take the categories of the logical component for example:(1).Not many arrows hit the target(2).Many arrows didn hit the target The deep structure is“NOT”.Through transformations,the two sentences differ semantically due to logical component NOT.Thus,semantic interpretation does play roles in surface structure.But Chomsky still believes semantic is determined by deep structure.3)The second revision involves the whole theoretical framework,which can be illustrated by the following diagram.*The most remarkable change is that Chomsky now completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure.22.Phrase structure;Lexicon The Transformational ComponentPhonological Rules Semantic Interpretative RulesThe Base ComponentDeep StructureSurface StructurePhonological RepresentationLogical Form Representation23.5.1.2Government and Binding1)TG grammar enters the fourth period of development with theory of GB.This theory consists of X-bar Theory,-Theory,Bounding Theory,Government Theory,Case Theory,Control Theory,and Binding Theory.2)In the theory of Government and Binding,there is a new concept:the empty category.Chomsky believes that through the empty category,we can further get to know about the mechanism of language.But this theory is not yet mature.24.3)Gonvernment and binding theory(http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_and_binding_theory)The name refers to two central subtheories of the theory:government,which is an abstract syntactic relation,and binding,which deals with the referents of pronouns,anaphors,and referential theory.GB was the first theory to be based on the principles and parameters model of language,which also underlies the later developments of the Minimalist Program.25.Government Government is defined as follows:A governs B if and only if lA is a governor andlA m-commands B andlno barrier intervenes between A and B.Governors are heads of the lexical categories(V,N,A,P)and tensed I(T).A m-commands B if A does not dominate B and B does not dominate A and the first maximal projection of A dominates B.The maximal projection of a head X is XP.This means that for example in a structure like the following,A m-commandsB,but B does not m-command A:26.BindinglBinding can be defined as follows:lAn element binds an element if and only if c-commands,and and corefer.lConsider the sentence John saw his mother.which is diagrammed below using simple phrase structure rules.lThe NP John c-commands his because the first parent of the NP,S,contains his.John and his are also corererential(they refer to the same person),therefore John binds his.27.(1)John saw him.(2)John saw himself.(3)Himself saw John.(4)John saw John.Binding is used,along with particular binding principles,to explain the ungrammaticality of those statements.The applicable rules are called Binding Principle A,Binding Principle B,and Binding Principle C.Principle A:an anaphor(reflexive or reciprocal,such as each other)must be bound in its governing category(roughly,the clause).Since himself is not c-commanded by John in sentence 3,Principle A is violated.Principle B:a pronoun must be free(i.e.,not bound)within its governing category(roughly,the clause).In sentence 1,him is bound by John,violating Principle B.Principle C:an R-expression must be free(i.e.,not bound).R-expressions(e.g.the dog or John)are referential expressions:unlike pronouns and anaphora,they independently refer,i.e.,pick out entities in the world.In sentence 4,the first instance of John binds the second,violating Principle C.28.5.2The Minimalist Program1)The Minimalist Program is motivated by two related questions:What are the general conditions that the human language faculty should be expected to satisfy?To what extent is the language faculty determined by these conditions,without a special structure that lies beyond them?29.2)Remarkable changes in the new theory:Some of the discrete analytical models in the GB are discarded and the two levels of analysis,the deep structure and the surface structure,are left out.The important concept of“government”in the previous theory is rejected and the facts interpreted by the theory of government are replaced by several revised concepts,thus the theory of government has turned from a subsystem of universal grammar into the interpretative constraint of the output condition.30.3)In the1990s,Chomsky further developed the minimalist theory in his Minimalist Inquiries:The Framework(1998).In his work,Chomsky holds that the initial states of human languages are the same whereas the states of acquiring different languages are notWhile the faculty of language consists of a cognitive system that stores information such as sound,meaning,and structures,the performance system retrieves and uses the information.He raises a profound question:How well is the language faculty designed?Chomsky imagines a case in which a certain primate which has been recognized its mind by giving it the faculty of languageThus,he put forward the strongest minimalist thesis:Linguistic mechanism is the ideal solution to the problem of legibility conditions.31.5.3 Reconsideration on TG Grammar32.5.3.1 Its consistent aims and purposes The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalizing theories and controlling the generative powers.Although it has involved putting forward,revising,and canceling of many specific rules,hypotheses,mechanisms,and theoretical models,its aims and purposes have been consistent,i.e.to explore the nature,origin and the uses of human knowledge on language.33.5.3.2 Its Main Features 1）Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles.2)He believes that the aim of linguistic is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.3)Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that reveal the native speakers tacit knowledge.They seldom use what native speakers actually say;they rely on their own intuition.4)The methodology is hypothesis-deductive.5)It follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.34.5.3.3 The influence In the late 1950s,the appearance of TG Grammar in America violently punched the prevailing structuralist descriptive linguistics.Chomskys theories are popular,particularly in the United State,but they have never been free from controversy.Criticism has come from a number of different directions.Some critics(see language learning)have questioned whether it is necessary to posit Universal Grammar in order to explain child language acquisition,arguing that domain-general learning mechanisms are sufficient.Today there are many different branches of generative grammar;one can view grammatical frameworks such as head-driven phrase structure grammar,lexical functional grammar and combinatory categorial grammar as broadly Chomsky and generative in orientation,but with significant differences in execution.35.5.4 Conclusion of presentation In the presentation given by Miss Xu,she introduces definition of syntax,she quotes two definitions from two Chinese scholars,while in her opinion,Syntax is about FORMATION&FORMULATION.She talks about approaches of Syntax:Traditional approach,Structural approach,Generative approach.Then she introduces Syntax relation:positional relation,relation of substitutability,relation of co-occurrence.In the next part,lexicalgrammatical categories are entailed.