大学英语自学教程(下册)语法部分.doc

大学英语自学教程（下册）语法一、as的用法as一词在英语中用法比较复杂。从词类上讲，as可以用作介词、副词、连词、关系代词。从语法功能上讲，as可以和它的宾语一起构成介词短语，可以引导状语从句、定语从句，也可以修饰形容词或其他副词。另外，as还可以用在很多习语中。一、as用作介词1.as用作介词时有两个基本词义。一个是“作为、担当”；另一个是“似、像”。例如：The actor who appeared as Romeo was his good friend.扮演罗密欧的演员是他的好朋友。He worked as a teacher in that school.他在那所学校任教。as用作介词时要注意与介词like的异同。as意为“似，像”时与介词like通用。但是当as用来表示“作为、担当”的意思时，与介词like有区别。请比较下面的例子：She spoke as a lawyer.她作为律师讲话。She spoke like a lawyer.她像律师一样说话。（她并不是律师）2.由as引出的介词短语在句子中可以作状语、定语、宾语补语和表语。(1)状语The nation rose as one man against foreign aggression.全国人民团结一致，起来反对外来侵略。As a newspaper reporter, he is naturally very much interested in the hero.作为一个新闻记者，他自然对这位英雄很感兴趣。(2)定语You are to be responsible for the work as a whole.你要对整个工作负责。He has got a position as teacher of English.他得到了一个英语教师的工作。(3)宾语补语We regard him as a shining example for us to learn from.我们把他看作学习的光辉榜样。They have chosen Essential English as their textbook.他们把基础英语选作教材。(4)表语The world is as a stage.世界好比舞台。He works as an engineer in a factory.他在一家工厂里当工程师。(5)宾语补足语He was a guest and was treated as such.他是客人，也确实被当作客人款待。二、as用作副词as用作副词可以表示程度，主要用在asas结构中。此时as的意思为“如同，像”例如：His face is as black as coal.他的脸像煤一样黑。John behaves as politely as Bob.约翰和鲍勃同样彬彬有礼。要注意的是在上面两个例句中。第一个as是副词，第二个as是连词。as作为副词还可以用在下面的句子中：I guessed as much.我料到是这么回事。三、as用作连词 as更多的是用作连词，引导状语从句。1.as可以引导比较状语从句。例如：We will give you as much help as we can.我们将尽力帮助你。These engines are not so powerful as those we have just made.这些发动机的推力不如我们刚生产出来的大。2.as可以引导让步状语从句。由as引导的让步状语从句常采用倒装接结构。例如：Try as I might, I could not lift the stone.尽管我想举起这块石头，可无论如何也举不起来。Change your mind as you will, you will gain no additional support.即使你想改变主意，你也不会得到进一步的支持。Much as it is, the stone is very heavy.尽管很小，这石头却很重。3.as可以引导时间状语从句。此时它可由just修饰。例如：Just as she was about to speak, she was handed a note.她正要说话，有人递给她一张便条。She sang as she worked.她一边工作一边唱歌。4.as可以引导原因状语从句。例如：She was well paid, as she had worked well.因为她工作得好，所以工资也高。As Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others.因为简是家里最大的孩子，所以要照顾其他孩子。 有时由as引导的状语既可以做原因状语解，也可以作时间状语解。例如：As he was standing near the door, he could hear the conversation in the kitchen.因为他站在门口，所以能听到厨房里的谈话。（as的意思相当于与since）或者：他站在厨房门口时，可以听到里面的谈话。（as的意思相当于while）5. as可以引导方式状语。此时它可由just或exactly修饰。例如：Please do it (exactly) as I said.请（完全）按照我说的做。Just as the earth circles round the sun, so the moon turns round the earth.正像地球围着太阳转一样，月亮也围着地球转。四、as用作关系代词as还可以引导限定性定语从句或非限定性定语从句，这时as是关系代词。当as引导限定性定语从句时，常和such或same连用。例如：Such people as you describe are rare nowadays.Or: people such as you describe are rare nowadays.你所描述的这种人现在已很少了。Then I left, with such a weight on my mind as I had never had before.然后我离开了，带着一种从未有过的沉重心情。I have the same trouble as you have.我和你有同样的困难。I feel just the same as you do.我和你的感受一样。当as引导非限定性定语从句时，常有插入语的性质，对主句做进一步说明，as指的是前面的整个主句。例如：I am working the night shift, as you know.如你所知，我在上夜班。She is extremely popular among students, as is common knowledge.如大家所知，她在学生中极受欢迎。He was against the plan, as could be expected.可以料想，他反对这一计划。as引导的非限定性定语从句也可以防在主句之前，这时as指的是后面整个主句。例如：As can be judged from her eyes, she has no personal hostility to us.从她的眼睛里可以看出，她个人对我们并无敌意。五、带as的一些习语as还可以用在许多习语中。下面简单介绍一些常用的带as的习语。1.as long as, so long as, as soon as都可以引导时间状语从句。例如：As long as I live here, I do it in my way.只要我住在这里，我就用我自己的方式来做这件事。He will continue working so long as he has the strength.只要他还有力气，他就会继续工作。As soon as I left, I burst out laughing.我一离开就大笑起来。2.as if和as though引导的方式状语从句常用虚拟语气。例如：She treated me as if I had been a stranger.她对我很冷淡，形同陌路人。I remember it as though it happened yesterday.对此事我记忆犹新，就像昨天发生的一样。3.as regard, as to, as for都可以用作复合介词，表示“关于”、“至于”的意思。as for不如as regards, as to正规了，常用来引出主题的改变。另外，as for用在句首，常含贬义。例如:Our tastes differ as regards music.我们对音乐的兴趣不同。He has no complaint as to salary.至于工资，他没什么可抱怨的。We had a delightful weekend in the country. As for the transport, we had no difficulty.我们在乡下度过了愉快的周末。至于交通工具，我们没遇到困难。As for his book, I suppose you have read the reviews.至于那本书，我想你已读过对它的评论了。4.as well, as well as都表示“也”、“又”的意思。例如：I want some fruit juice, but I want soup as well.我要点儿果汁，但我还要汤。She wants a pen as well as a pencil.她要一支钢笔，一支铅笔。5.so as to或soas to后可以接作目的状语或结果状语的不定式。例如：We hurried so as to get there in time.我们匆匆赶路，以便按时到达。She wore a heavy coat so as not to catch cold.她穿了件厚大衣，以免着凉。He so arranged matters as to suit everybody.他这样安排是为了使每个人都满意。二、一致关系一致关系指句子成分之间须在人称、数、性等方面保持一致。在英语中最主要的一致关系是主语和谓语动词之间数的一致，即人们常说的主谓一致。下面我们讨论一下主谓一致和人称代词一致问题。一、主谓一致在现代英语中主谓一致基本遵循如下原则：语法一致原则、意义一致原则和就近原则。语法一致原则就是根据主语的语法形式决定其谓语动词的语法形式。主语是单数，谓语动词就用单数形式；主语是复数，谓语动词就用复数形式。例如：My daughter watches television after supper.我女儿晚饭后看电视。My daughters watch television after supper.我的女儿们晚饭后看电视。My son has no intention of spending a vacation with me.我儿子不想和我一起度假。My sons have no intention of spending a vacation with me.我的儿子们不想和我一起度假。A letter has been sent to every student.给每个学生寄了一封信。Two letters have been sent to every student.给每个学生寄了两封信。To treat them in that way is unfair.那样对待他们是不公平的。Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.吸烟有害健康。意义一致原则指主谓语之间的一致关系不是由主语的语法形式来决定，而是由主语所表达的意义来决定。形式是单数的主语，其谓语有可能是复数形式；反之，形式是复数的主语，其谓语有可能是单数。例如：The government have broken all their promises.政府违背了全部诺言。（指政府的各部门或成员）The class are doing experiments on heat and light.全班同学都在做热和光的实验。The council are of two opinions.委员会成员意见分歧。The United States is a country advanced in science and technology.美国是一个科学技术发达的国家。（美国是由许多州构成的单一国家）Ten dollars is all I have left.我只剩下10美元了。（把10美元当作一个整体看待，而不是10个1美元。）Two thirds of the area is under water.该地区2/3被水覆盖。就近原则，指谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。由eitheror或neithernor连接或者当一个句子是由there或here引起的，而主语又不止一个时，谓语通常和最靠近它的主语一致。例如：Here is a pen, a few envelopes and some paper in the drawer.抽屉里有一支钢笔，几个信封和一些纸。Neither she nor I am wet.她和我都没有被淋湿。Either you or he was in the wrong.要么你错了，要么他错了。上述三条原则的具体应用则比较复杂，下列几点应予以注意：1.谓语动词用单数的情况(1)不定式、动名词短语或名词性从句做主语时，谓语动词用单数。例如：To become actress is their ambition.做演员是她们的雄心。Nodding often means you say yes.点头常常意味着你表示同意。What I did was give her a book.我所做的就是给她一本书。(2)事件、国名、机构名称、作品名称用作主语时，谓语动词用单数。例如：The United States is a country advanced in science and technology.美国是一个科学技术发达的国家。The United Nations was formed in 1945.联合国成立于1945年。The Thirty-nine steps is an interesting novel.三十九级台阶是一本很有意思的小说。(3) one, every, everyone, everybody, each, one of, many a, either, neither, no one, nobody, anyone, someone, somebody用作主语或修饰主语时，谓语动词用单数。例如：Many a student does not like having to do their homework.很多学生都不喜欢被迫做作业。One of the teachers is absent today.有位教师今天未到。Every boy and girl is treated in the same way.每个男孩和女孩都受到同样待遇。Neither of the two girls is at home.两个女孩都不在家。但现在英美也有人在neither of用作主语或修饰主语的句子中用复数形式的谓语动词。例如：Neither of the two girls are at home.(4)表示时间、距离、金钱、体积、数字等的词语用作主语表示总量时，谓语动词用单数。例如：Fifteen years represents a long period of his life.15年代表他一生中一个很长的时期。One hundred miles is too far to travel on foot.100英里太远了，徒步旅行难以到达。Ten thousand dollars is a large sum of money.10000美元是一大笔钱。(5)单数词做主语，虽然后接由including, as well as, together with, in addition to, accompanied by等词连接的其它词，谓语动词仍用单数。例如：Gold, as well as silver, has recently risen in price.最近金银的价格上涨了。The factory, with all its equipment, has been burned.这家工厂连同设备一起被烧毁了。(6)a portion of, a series of, a kind of等词语修饰主语时，谓语动词一般根据语法一致的原则用单数。例如：A series of prerecorded tapes has been prepared for language laboratory use.已准备好的一系列预先录制的磁带供语言实验室使用。2.谓语动词用复数的情况(1)both, some, few, many, several等词语用作主语或修饰主语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：Both of them have gone to Shanghai on business.他们两个人都去上海出差了。Few of my classmates really understand me.我的同学中没几位真正理解我。Several students were late for school yesterday.昨天几个学生上课迟到了。(2)形容词前加定冠词泛指时，谓语动词用复数。例如：In many western films, the good are well rewarded and the bad are punished.在很多西方电影中，好人有好报，恶人有恶报。3.其他情况(1)由and连接两个主语时，谓语动词一般用复数。例如：Your problem and mine are similar.你我的问题相似。The secretary and the headmaster of the school were present at the meeting.学校的书记和校长都出席了会议。但当and连接的词语作整体考虑，或在意义上指同一个人或物时，谓语动词一般用单数。例如：Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.面包和黄油是我喜爱的早餐。The secretary and headmaster of the school was present at the meeting.学校的书记兼校长出席了会议。当由and连接的两个单数名词前面有each, every等词修饰时，谓语动词一般用单数。例如：Each actor and actress was invited.每一位男演员和女演员都受到了邀请。 一个单数名词前有由and连接的两个形容词修饰时，谓语动词一般用复数。例如：Chinese and Japanese silk are of good quality.中国和日本丝绸质量都好。(2)当or, eitheror, neithernor, not onlybut also连接一个单数主语和一个复数主语时，谓语动词的数取决于它邻近的主语的数。例如：Neither the prices nor the quality has changed.价格与质量都没变。Neither the quality nor the prices have changed.质量与价格都没变。(3)集体名词做主语时，谓语动词的数常取决于主语的意义。当主语表示整体时，谓语动词用单数；当主语强调集体的个体时，谓语动词用复数。The family is the basic unit of the society.家庭是社会的基本单位。The family have agreed among themselves to spend their vacation in Italy.一家人都同意去意大利度假。这类集体名词有：people, army, audience, cattle, class, club, committee, crowd, family, government, group, majority, party, police, public, staff, team等，其中people, cattle, police常用复数。(4)一些表示数量的词语，如a lot of, any of, most of, half of, two-thirds of, ninety percent of, part of, the rest of, some of, none of, all of与名词连用时，谓语动词的数取决于名词的数。名词用单数，谓语动词也用单数，名词用复数，谓语动词也用复数。例如：A lot of the equipment was made in China.这些设备中很多是中国制造的。A lot of my friends are here to celebrate my birthday.我的很多朋友来这里庆贺我的生日。Most of the book is interesting.这本书大部分很有意思。Most of the books are informative though a little dull.这些书尽管有点枯燥，但大多数是有知识内容的。注意当a number of修饰主语时，谓语动词用复数，而当the number of与名词连用作主语时，谓语动词用单数。例如：A number of students were late for school owing to the storm.一些学生因暴风雨而迟到。The number of errors was surprising.错误的数量让人吃惊。二、代词一致代词一致是指句子中代词应在数、性、人称等方面保持一致，或代词和它所指代的名词词组在某些方面保持一致。例如：The city is proud of its parks.这座城市为它的园林而自豪。1.由and连接两个先行词，代词用复数。例如：George and John sat down with their coats on.乔治和约翰坐了下来，没脱掉外衣。2.由or, eitheror, neither.nor, not onlybut also连接的先行词如果在数和性上是一致的，就用其相应的代词；如果先行词在数和性上不一致，代词可与邻近的先行词保持一致，在正式文体中也可用两个不同的代词。例如：Neither Mary nor Alice had her key with her.玛丽和爱丽丝都没带钥匙。Neither the parcel nor the letters had reached their destination.包裹和信件都没到达目的地。Not only Tom but also I can do my work well.汤姆和我都能把工作做好。If either David or Janet comes, he or she will want a drink.如果戴维或詹妮特来，会要点饮料喝。3.当each, everyone, everybody, no one, none, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody用作主语或主语限定词时，其相应的代词一般用单数形式。例如:Everybody talked at the top of his voice.大家都尽力高声讲话。Nobody wants to go there, does he?没人想到那里去，是吗？在非正式语体中，也可以根据意义一致原则用复数代词。例如：None of these workers can do it, can they?这些工人都不会做，对吧？4.当everything, anything, something, nothing等用作主语时，句中相应的代词一般只按照语法一致的原则，用单数形式。例如：Anything on the desk can be thrown away, cant it?桌子上的任何东西都可以扔掉，对吧？Everything is ready, isnt it?一切都准备好了，是吗？5.集体名词作先行词时，如果集体名词指整体，用单数代词；如果指集体中的个体，则用复数代词。例如：My family is large. It is composed of nine members.我的家庭很大，有九个成员。My family are loving and supportive. They are always ready to help me.我的家人友爱互助。他们随时准备帮助我。三、语序一、主语和谓语的位置主语和谓语有两种顺序。一是主语在前，谓语在后，称为自然语序（Natural Order）。二是谓语在前，主语在后，称为倒装语序（Inverted Order）。倒装语序又分为全部倒装（Full Inversion）和部分倒装（Partial Inversion）。在全部倒装的句子中，整个谓语放在主语前面。例如：There are some books on the table. 桌子上有几本书。In came a man with a knife in his hand. 突然进来一个人，手中拿着一把刀。在部分倒装的句子中，只是位于谓语的一部分（如助动词、情态动词或系动词be）放在主语前面。例如：What will you be doing this time tomorrow? 明天这个时候你会在做什么？He couldnt answer this question. Nor could I. 他回答不了这个问题。我也回答不了。1、在疑问句中疑问句多数都是倒装语序。例如：Has he left his telephone number with you? 他给你留了电话号码了吗？What were you doing when they came to see you yesterday?昨天他们来看你时，你在做什么？如果主语是由疑问词修饰或表示的，就用自然语序。例如：Who invented the new machine? 谁发明的这台新机器？How many people are there in that company? 那家公司有多少人？有时在口语中，一般问句可以采用自然语序，也就是大多数陈述句的语序。这种问句称作原序问句（Declarative Questions），其疑问含义靠句末的升调来表示。例如：You have lost your car? 你把汽车丢了？You dont think thats the best way of doing it? 你认为这不是最好的做法？2、在感叹句中感叹句中的主谓语多采用自然语序。例如：What a good time we had！我们玩得多高兴啊！How fast the clouds are moving in the sky! 天上的云跑得多快啊！当一个感叹句包含一个带表语的复合谓语，而该表语又被what或how修饰时，这个表语要放在主语和谓语动词前面。例如：What a kind-hearted man he is! 他是一个多么善良的人啊！How kind-hearted he is! 他是个多么善良的人啊！另外，感叹句和疑问句一样，采用倒装语序。例如：Isnt it a lovely day! 天气多么好啊！Have you ever seen anyone behaving like him! 你见过谁像他这样行事！3、在陈述句中陈述句多用自然语序。但在某些情况下需要或可以用倒装语序。陈述句中的倒装语序可以归纳为三种情况：（1）英语语法要求某些句型中采用倒装语序。这些句型包括：a、由there、now、thus、then引导的某些句子。例如：There is going to be a film tonight. 今晚有一场电影。The door opened and there entered a middle-aged man in a blue coat. 门开了，进来一位穿蓝上衣的中年人。Here comes the bus. 汽车来了。There goes the bell. 铃响了。Then came a new problem. 然后产生了一个新问题。Then followed four years of the war for Independence.然后是四年的独立战争。b、由so、neither、nor引出，表示前面所说的情况也适用于另一人或物的肯定句或否定句。例如：I am quite willing to help and so are other students in my class.我很愿意帮忙，班上其他同学也很愿意。He doesnt care for sweets. Nor (Neither) do I. 他不喜欢吃糖，我也不喜欢。c、省略了if的虚拟条件句。例如：Had they not been working so hard, they would not have achieved so much. 如果他们不是一直很努力，就不会去的如此大的成就。d、在某些让步状语从句中。例如：Say what you will, I wont change my mind. 不管你怎么说，我不会改变主意。e、在某些表示祝愿的句子中。例如：May your country become prosperous and powerful. 祝贵国繁荣昌盛。f、以never、little、not only、not until、hardly、scarcely、only等表示否定或基本否定的词引出的句子中。例如：Never before has our country been so rapidly developing as it is today. 我们国家从来没有像现在这样高速发展。Little did we know that the region was rich in natural resources. 我们一点也不知道这一地区自然资源丰富。Not only were the old cities improved, but the new cities were built. 不仅旧城市得到改善，一些新城市也建了起来。Not until quite recently did I realize that language was closely related to culture.只是我们最近才意识到语言与文化密切相关。Hardly had he finished his talk when someone rose to ask him questions.他还没有说完，就有人站起来提问。Scarcely had he begun to work when john came to see him. 他刚开始工作，忽然约翰来看他。Only in this way can you hope to improve your English. 只有这样你才能指望提高英语水平。（2）使用自然语序和倒装语序均可的句型。直接引语中间或后面表示“某人说”或“某人想”的转述分句中，引述动词可以在主语前，也可以在主语后。例如：“There must be someone in the room ,” thought Smith(或Smith thought) .“屋里肯定有人。”史密斯想道。但如果谓语较长，则只采用自然语序。例如：“I bought a very interesting novel yesterday.” he said to me in a whisper. 他小声对我说：“我昨天买了一本很有意思的小说。”在现代英语新闻报刊中，转述分句位于直接引语之前时，也可以使用倒装语序。Said a U.S. official, “This is a political crisis of confidence.”一位美国官员说：“这是个政治性的信任危机。”（3）由于修饰或语句连接的原因而采用倒装语序的情况。当一个句子没有宾语而主语较长时，常可把状语或表语放到句首，同时把谓语也放到主语前面。引出这类句子的经常是介词短语。例如：To the list may be added the following names. 名单上还可以加上下列名字。Along the river banks stood many trees. 河的两岸有许多树。Next to it is another restaurant where we can have good Chinese food. 它旁边还有一家饭馆可以吃到美味中餐。要注意的是这类句子不是必须用倒装语序，自然语序同样合乎英语语法。上面的三个例句也可以用自然语序。例如：The following names may be added to the list. Many trees stood along the river banks. Another restaurant