英语专业 语言学 复习资料.doc

1.1 What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2 Design features of languageArbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning. Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level. Creativity创造性 Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.Displacement移位性 By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.1.3 Functions of languageInformative信息功能 Language serves an informative function when it is used to express the speakers opinion, to state a fact, or to reason things out. Interpersonal function人际功能 Language serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Performative行事功能 Language can be used to do things, to perform action. e.g. “I surrender.” “Ill do it tonight.” “I declare the meeting open.” “ I sentence you to three years in prison.”Emotive function感情功能 The use of language to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. e.g. “Ouch!”, “Im terribly sorry about ” (alternatively called expressive function)Phatic communion寒暄交谈 The use of language to establish or maintain a comfortable social contact between people without involving any factual content. E.g. greetings, farewells, and talking about the weather. Recreational function娱乐功能 The use of language for the sheer joy of using it. E.g. singing, poetry writing.Metalingual function元语言功能 The use of language to make statements about language itself. The language about which they are made is called the object language. 1.4 What is linguistics? The scientific study of language.1.5 MicrolinguisticsPhonetics语音学 The study of the nature, production, and perception of sounds of speech, in abstraction from the phonology of any specific language. Variously divided into acoustic phonetics, articulatory phonetics, and auditory phonetics.Phonology音系学 The study of the sound systems of individual languages and of the nature of such systems generally. Morphology形态学 Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax句法学 The branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics语义学 The study of meaning.Pragmatics语用学 The study of the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts.1.6 Language and cultureLanguage is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use.1.7 Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)最大节前辅音原则Which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the code.1.8 Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. prescriptive描写vs.规定 A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyzes linguistic facts observed; it is prescriptive if it lays down rules for grammatical correctness.Synchronic vs. diachronic共时vs.历时 The study of language as its exists at a particular point in time is synchronic. Langue vs. parole语言vs.言语 A distinction made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure(索绪尔1857-1913). Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue. Competence vs. performance语言能力vs.语言运用 Competence is the speaker-listeners knowledge of his language and performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.IPA：International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会). 2.The theory of cardinal vowels Cardinal vowels: A set of vowels established by Daniel Jones as fixed and unchanging reference points for the description of vowels in any language. By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight: 8个基本元音：记住：p34, p35, p36三个表格。3. Phonemes and allophones Minimal pair最小对立体: Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words bit and bet are a minimal paircomplimentary：4. Phonological process Assimilation同化: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of neighboring sound. Assimilation is often used synonymous with coarticulation. If a following sound influences a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation逆同化: e.g. can, tan, tenth, ninth, sink, mink, gooseberry, raspberry, cupboard, five pence, have to, used to, pan cake, sun glass. if a preceding sound influences a following sound,it is Progressive assimilation顺同化 e.g. works, words, pears, writes, rides, eyes, laughed, loved, played. 5. The three variants of the plural form in English :：the /s/ appears after voiceless sounds：the/z/ appears after voiced sounds：the/z/ appears after sibilants6.Stress Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.:句子的重音。 ：单词的重音7. Tone.English is not tone language but Chinese is .Chapter 31. Morpheme : is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.2. Determiner :前位：all, both, half; double, twice, three times, etc; one-third, two-fifths, etc; what, such, (a / an)中位：a(n), the this, that, these, those my, your, his, her, our, Jims, my mothers some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough, what(ever), which(ever), whose, etc 后位：one, two, three, etc; first, second, third, etc; next, last, other, another, etc; many, much, (a) few, (a) little, fewer, (the) fewest, less, (the) least, more, most; several, plenty of, a lot of, lots of, a great / large / good number of, a great / good deal of, a large / small amount of; such3.Word Formation(1) Compound复合词 blackboard, bookworm, braindrain(2) Derivation衍生；派生 teacher, clockwise, uninstall(3) Invention新创词语 nylon, condom, boycott, Xerox(4) Blending混成法 modem, BoBo, blog, e-book, e-zine, bit (binary + digit)(5) Abbreviation缩写词；略语 fax, bus, flu (6) Acronym首字母缩写词 CEO，ATM，Back-formation逆构词法 edit, lase, enthuse(7) Analogical creation类推造字 work、wrought、worked, Slay、slew、slayed(8) Borrowing借用；借词 typhoon, mahjong, mortgage,i. Loanwords借词 Loanblend混合借词 Chinatown 吉普车ii. Loanshift 转移借词 bridge, artificial satellite, iii. Loan translation翻译借词 Chapter 41. Syntactic RelationsPositional Relation:Positional relation, or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.Relation of substitutability:替代关系Whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. Relation of co-occurrence: 同现关系Words of different sets of clauses may permit, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence.2. Immediate Constitute 直接成分分析法N: 名词 V:动词 adj: 形容词 adv: 副词 det:限定词 part: 助词Prep: 介词 aux: 情态动词 NP: 名词短语 VP:动词短语 PP:介词短语 AP: 形容词短语 C/S 从句，句子3. Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric: 向心结构 Usually NP, VP, AP belong to endocentric tupes because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.Coordination and Subordination belong to Endocentric.Exocentric: 离心结构There is no definable centre or head inside the group. Usually includes basic sentence ,PP, Predicate (V+O)construction, and connective construction( be+complement).4. Recursiveness : 递归性Embedding：嵌入式Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. The 3 basic types : complement , adjunct ( or adverbial) and relative clauses. Chapter 51. Meaning : Representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of meaning have favored.记P94表格。2. The Referential Theory: 指称论concept3. Sense relationsSynonymy 同义关系 Synonym:同义词 分为完全同义词和部分同义词Antonymy 反义关系 Antonym: 反义词 i: Gradable antonymy : good-bad, long-short ii: Complementary antonymy ：alive - dead iii: Converse antonymy: buy-sell, borrow- giveHyponymy 上下义关系： 一种意义包含的关系 上义词： superodinate 下义词： Hyponyms4. Componential Analysis: 成分分析P103 出判断题Entailment:包含关系 a=1,b=1 a=0,b=?Presupposing: 前提关系 a=1,b=1 a=0,b=1Inconsistent:矛盾 a=1,b=0 a=0,b=1Chapter 81. Pragmatics = context + meaning2. Speech Act Theory: John Langshaw AustinPerformatives : 施为句perform acts 特点：第一人称， 现在时， 直陈语气， 主动语态Constatives : 叙事句It is a descrition of what the speaker is doing at the same time of speaking.( state a fact; report; describe) 3. A theory of the Illocutionary Act Locutionary : 言内行为 Illocutionary: 言外行为 Perlocutionary: 言后行为4. The Cooperative Principle P 1775. Characteristics of Implicature:Calculability: 可推测性Cancellability: 可撤销性（ 加一句话可撤销）Non-detachability: 不可分离性Non-conventionality : 非常规性Chapter9P206 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?P215 9.4.4 How to analyse the language of fiction?P221 9.3.3 How to analyse Dramatic texts?Chapter101. CAI: Computer-assisted instruction 计算机辅助教学 CAL: Computer-assisted Learning 计算机辅助学习 CALL:Computer-assisted Language learning 计算机辅助语言学习Chapter 111. Contrastive Analysis ( CA)P270-2712. Error Analysis (EA)Mistake: 具备competence ,但没有performanceError: 没有competenceChapter121. The Prague School The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonogy.代表人物： TrubetskoyFunctional sentence perspective (FSP) 功能句子观The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.2.The London SchoolB. Malinowski, J.R. Firth, M.A.K. Halliday all stress the importance of context of situation and the system aspects of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.l Malinowskis theories: Meaning is not something that exists in sounds, but something that exists in the relations of sounds and their environment.l Firths theories: Language is a social process. Meaning is use, the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts （ P285 第二段）l Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarHallidays SF is a sociological oriented functional linguistic approach which can be applied to language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation. :Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential:Functional Grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.3.12.4 American StructuralismEarly period: Boas and Sapir the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, Sapir defines language as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”. Bloomfields theory Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”, and the adults use of language is also a process of Stimulus-Response. Post-Bloomfieldian linguisticsZ. Harris, C. Hockett, G. Trager, use the computer to carry out discovery procedures, Harriss theory is circular, depending heavily on meaning, K. Pike, Tagmemics, everything in the world is hierarchical.4. Transformational-Generative Grammar由Chomsky 提出The Innateness HypothesisChomsky believes that language is somewhat innate and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acqusition Divice( LAD)Generative GrammerA system of rules that in some explicit and well -defined way assigns atructural descriptions to sentences.The Classical Theory: Chomsky puts forward 3 kinds of grammar: finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar