2023年语言学知识点总结胡壮麟版.docx

Chapter 4
4.1 syntacti句法 ) relations
4.1.1 positional rel位置0关系)
For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammaticaroles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.
Positional relation or word order ref ers to th©有sefiuentialrangement of words in alanguage.
Positional relation are a manif体现tion(one aspect of syntagmatic relations
Word orderisamong the threebasicways (word ordergeneticand classification) classifylanguage words.
Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.
4.1.2 relation of substitute替Kilj/|^I
Firstlyelationf substitutabilitfersto classesor setsof words substitutaboe each othergrammatically in sentence with the same structure.
Secondly it refersto groups of more than one word which may be jointlysubstitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.
This is what Saussure called assc联联想tive(relations or in Hjeihs lpavradigmat 纵聚性
)relation.
4.1.3 relation of co-occu 共现c)s(
Means words of differentetsof clausesmay permit pr requirethe occurrenceof a word ofanother set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
Thus relationof co-occurrence）artlybelong to syntagmaticrationspartlyto paradigmaticrelations.
4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents
4.2.1 Grammatical construction
Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain comple
lexemes 词位）
4.2.2 immediate constituent"分）
Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construc

ThisNps tree diagram倒子构造分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位 一部分，如在 The girl ate the apple (A ) the bo( B) ate the appl)都是一种成分，成分可以和其他成分组合构成更大 单位，假如两个成分B ( the boy )C (ate theapple结合起来形成一种更高成分AWord-level De t N
The girl ate the apple
N=noun
A=adjective
V=verb
P=preposition
Det=determiner
Adv=adverb
Conj=conjunction
Phrasal
NP=noun phrase
AP=adjective phrase
VP=verb phrase
PP=preposition phrase
S=sentence or clause
To dismantlea grammaticalconstructures thisway is calledimmediate constituentcsr ICanalysis.
Bracketingis not as common in use, but it is an economic notationin representingheconstituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))
2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions
Endocentricconstructioiis one whose distributiis functionallequivalento thatof one ormore of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centihead.
Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because thconstituent items are subordinate to the Head.
4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions相信构造)Endocentricconstructioiis one whose distributiis functionallequivalento thatof one ormore of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centrhead.
Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because thconstituent items are subordinate to the Head.
4.2.3.1 Exocent(i并列构造)
Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the wordsfunctionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther46C^tnS d>®fiHie.a)deinside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.
2.4 Coordination and Subordination
Endocentricconstructionfall into two main types, depending on the relatiorbetweenconstituents:
Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed bygrouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such aand, but and or .
Coordination of NPs:
[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]
Coordination of VPs:
[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]
Coordination of PPs:
[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]
Coordination of APs:
[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]
Coordination of Ss:
[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].
Subordination 附属）refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they hadifferentyntactictatusone beingdependentupon theother,and usually! constituentf theother.
The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be calledmodifiers.
Clauses can be used as subordinatesonstituentThere are threebasictypesof subordinateclauses:
4.3. Syntactic 法）Function
The syntactifiunctionshows the relationshbptween a linguistform and otherpartsof thelinguistic pattern in which it is used.
Names of functionsare expressed in terms of subjects,objects,predicatorsmodifiers,complements, etc.
4.3.1 Subject
In English, the subject of a sentence is of ten said to be the agent, or the doer of the actionthe object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.
In order to account for the case of subjectin passivevoice, we have two other terms“grammatical subject and “logical subject
Word order
Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:
Pro-forms
The firstnd thircpersonpronouns in Englishppearina speciaform when thepronoun is asubject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:Agreement with the verb
In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singula:the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at allthe form of the verb
Content questions
If the subjectisreplacedby a questionvord （who or what）, the restof the sentenceremains
unchanged, as in
4.4Category （范围）
The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:
Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability
Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice
4.4.1 Number
Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrastas singular, dual, plural, etc.
性）
Such contrasts ““masculine : feminine : iTeuteranimate : inanim’at,e etc. for the analysisof word classes.
4.4.3Case（格）
The casecategoryisused in theanalysiof word classesto identifyhe syntacticelationshipbetween words in a sentence.
4.4.4Agreement.
Agreement （or concord） may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words ofspecific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship wi th one another shall ahcharacterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).
4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence
Prase is a singleelement of structurcontainingmore than one word, and lacking thesubject-predicate structure typical of clauses.

Basic sentence types: Quirk
SVC Mary is kind^^^^^^^^^

SVThe child is laughing.
SVOSomebody caught the ball.
SVOCWe have proved him wrong.
a fool.
SVOA I put the plate on thetable.
SVOO She gives me expensive presents.
4.6RecursivenesM（归性）
Recursivenessmainly means that a phrasal constituenCan be embedded within anotherconstituenhaving the same category,but ithas become an umbrella term such importantlinguist phenomena as coordinationnd subordinatioic,onjoiningind embedding, hypotacticand paratactic.
Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative cso long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.

Conjoining: coordination.
Conjunctions: and, but, and or.
联络一种小句或者其他并列或链接过程，通过这种过程构成句子即并列
4.6.2Embedding （嵌入）
Embedding: subordination.
Main clauses and subordinate clauses.
Three basic types of subordinate clauses:
Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause: