预设(Presupposition)(课堂PPT).ppt

预设P11.Introducing the topic Sorry for any delay.Sorry for the delay.22.Definition(a)Shared assumptions(Peter Grundy,1995)3张：人这辈子不要太在意钱。人活着就是一日三 餐。这站都玉泉路了，要那么多钱有什么 用？4(b)Background assumptions against which the main import of an utterance is assessed.The relation is something like the figure and ground in Gestalt psychology:the figure of an utterance is what is asserted or what is the main point of what is said,while the ground is the set of presuppositions against which the figure is assessed.5678(3)Properties of Presuppositions(A)Presupposition has the following properties1.Associated with particular aspects of surface structure,called presupposition trigger.Karttunen collected thirty-one kinds of such triggers.1-1 Definite description(Strawson,1950,1952):proper nouns,common nouns with definite article“the”.9 John saw the man with two heads.There exists a man with two heads.1-2 Factive verbs(Kiparsky&Kiparsky,1971)Martha regrets drinking Johns home brew.Martha drank Johns home brew.(glad,proud,sorry,sad)10 The“fact-S”structure The fact that Pat wanted to talk to Stephen is odd.The fact of Pats wanting/having wanted to talk to Stephen is significant.111-3 Implicative verbs(Karttunen,1971b)John managed to open the door.John tried to open the door.1-4 Change of state verbs(Sellas,1954;Karttunen,1973)John stopped beating his wife.John had been beating his wife.121-5 Iterative(重复反复重复反复)In delivering my son from me,I bury a second husband.(All is well that ends well)I buried my husband.Come here my varlet,Ill unarm again.(Troilus and Cressida)I unarmed once.131-6 Verbs of judging(Fillmore,1971a)Agatha accused John of plagiarism.(Agatha thinks)plagiarism is bad.141-7 Temporal clauses(Frege,1892(1952)While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics,the rest of social science was asleep.Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics.151-8 Cleft sentences(分裂句 Halvorsen,1978;Prince,1978;Atlas&Levinson,1981)It was Henry that kissed Rose.Someone kissed Rose.161-9 Implicit clefts with stressed constituents(Chomksy,1972)Linguistics was invented by CHOMSKY!Someone invented linguistics.171-10 Comparisons and contrasts(Lakoff,1971)Carol is a better linguist than Barbara.Barbara is a linguist.181-11 Non-restrictive relative clauses Hillary,who climbed Everest in 1953,was the greatest explorer of our day.Hillary climbed Everest.191-12 Counterfactual conditionals If you had sent me a Christmas card last year,I would have sent you one this year.You did not send me a Christmas card last year.201-13 Questions(Katz,1972;Lyons,1977)Yes/no questions;alternative questions;WH-questions Is there a professor of linguistics at MIT?Either there is a professor of linguistics at MIT or there isnt.21 Is Newcastle in England or is it in Australia?Newcastle is in England or Newcastle is in Australia.22Who is the professor of linguistics at MIT?Someone is the professor of linguistics at MIT.232.“Constancy under negation”(Levinson,1983,p.185)It is often claimed that presupposition can survive negation.Her successor managed to win the election that followed.This presupposes that her successor tried or that winning the election was not easy.24 Her successor didnt managed to win the election that followed.This still presuppose that her successor tried or that the winning the election was not easy.25 The Prime Minister remembered to keep a record of her instructions at the time arms were exported to Iraq.This presupposes that the Prime Minister should have kept a record of her instructions.26 The Prime Minister didnt remember to keep a record of her instructions at the time arms were exported to Iraq.And the same presupposition is kept despite of the negation.273.Defeasible in certain discourse contexts or certain intra-sentential contexts.Sue cried before she finished her thesis.Sue finished her thesis.28 Sue died before she finished her thesis.Sue finished her thesis?294.Suspendable by the use of if-clause John didnt cheat again,if ever he did.30(5)Presupposition and entailment（蕴涵）（蕴涵）The two thieves were caught again last night.A thief was caught last night.The two thieves had been caught before.31 The two thieves were not caught again last night.A thief was caught last night.The two thieves were caught before.32(6)Types of presuppositions:Conventional presupposition and pragmatic presupposition(a)Conventional presupposition is associated with structure.(b)Pragmatic presupposition is a relation between a speaker and the appropriateness of a sentence in a context(background assumption,non-linguistic in nature).33ExampleAll of Jacks children are bright.I realized that I had made a mistake.Is Mary an actress or a dancer?Mary is either an actress or a dancer.34(7)Functions of presupposition(a)economy “He that hath knowledge spareth his words.”(Proverbs 17:27)Imagine someone says Tell Madonna Im at lunch.35 We can assume that the following conditions are presupposed:(a)Madonna is likely to appear soon.(b)The addressee knows who she is and will pass the message on.36We rely on presuppositions,otherwise we would have to say in a much more elaborate way:“I am expecting Madonna soon and since I know that you know what she looks like and I know that you are willing to pass on the message that I am at lunch,tell her that Im at lunch.”37(b)Trapping“你是什么时候停止偷窃工厂财物的？你是什么时候停止偷窃工厂财物的？”“你是几年级不再欺负女同学的？你是几年级不再欺负女同学的？”“斑马是黑色还是白色？斑马是黑色还是白色？”“你停止打老婆没有？你停止打老婆没有？”38(c)Foregrounding and back-grounding.“在大青山与乌拉河之间的峪口中有一条昆都仑河，在大青山与乌拉河之间的峪口中有一条昆都仑河，由北而南流入黄河。昆都仑河就是古代的石门水，由北而南流入黄河。昆都仑河就是古代的石门水，石门水大概是古代游牧民族进入阴山以南的沃也最石门水大概是古代游牧民族进入阴山以南的沃也最方便的一条道路。在这个通道的外面，已经发现了方便的一条道路。在这个通道的外面，已经发现了一些汉代的古城，有一个古城可能就是汉代的光禄一些汉代的古城，有一个古城可能就是汉代的光禄城。城。”（左思民，（左思民，2000，p.147)39(d)Persuasion（1）原文：长白山五日游）原文：长白山五日游去的有你吗？去的有你吗？比较：长白山五日游比较：长白山五日游你去吗？你去吗？40（2）A:你今儿用大宝了吗？你今儿用大宝了吗？B:C:嘿，你瞧人家那张脸。嘿，你瞧人家那张脸。41（3）沿着旧地图，找不到新大陆。（）沿着旧地图，找不到新大陆。（李宁李宁90后广告后广告）42