工商管理专业外语翻译.doc

The concert of utility效用概念
Economists first began to analyze consumer behavior over a century ago when it was fashionable in psychological circles, to assert that much of human behavior could be explained by people’s desire to realize as much “pleasure” and to avoid as much “pain” as possible. The pleasure-pain doctrine was quickly borrowed by economists and applied to the sphere of consumer expenditures in what became the first systematic theory of motivated consumer behavior; the basic economic thesis was that rational consumers would ,quite intentionally ,manage their purchases of goods and services so as to realize the greatest possibleamountofoveralltotal“satisfaction”.Economistslabeledthewant-satisfying power of goods and services as “utility”.
经济学家最开始研究消费者行为学是在一个多世纪前当心理学界流行一种说法：人们的很多行为可以解释为人们为了尽可能获得更多的幸福、规避更多的痛苦而做的努力。这种苦乐心跳很快便被经济学家借用了并运用于消费者的消费行为中并使之成为解释消费者行为的第一个系统理论：基础的经济论点是理智的消费者会有意识的管理他们对于商品和服务的消费来时总体满意度最大。经济学家把人们对商品和服务的需求与满足称为“效用”。
How markets function市场如何发挥作用A critical part of examining the market for a product is the structure of competition—whether there are many or few sellers in the industry. The terms “many” and “few” are delineated not so much by the numbers of firms as by the competitive interaction among firms. There are “many” sellers of a product when no one firm has a big enough volume of business or enjoys high enough standing as a market leader for the remaining firms to react to its action. Each firm is small enough and insignificant enough in the context of the whole market that it is virtually an anonymous entity, hidden by sheer numbers from the watchful eyes of other firms. In contrast, we say there are “few” sellers of a product whenever the actions of any one firms will be noticed and reacted to by rival sellers. “Few” means few enough so that firms find it imperative to follow each other’s moves closely. Fewness of sellers also means that each firm is large relative to the size of the market in which it operates; often, when firms are few in number each firms is large in absolute size a well. The single-firm industry,or monopoly, is the limiting case of fewness.考核一种商品市场的关键是它的竞争结构——在这个行业中有很多还是很少卖家。这里的“多”与“少”不仅是看企业的数目，更重要的是看企业间的竞争活动。一种产品有很多卖家是说没有哪家企业有足够大的市场份额，或者作为市场领导者高高在上，使得其余的卖家只能对它已有的行动做相应的反应。在整个市场范围内每一个企业都足够小或者足够不重要。实际上每一家都是淹没在众多企业中的小企业，不会引起其他企业的注意。反之，我们说一种产品的卖家很少是指每一个企业都被对手注意这，它的每个举动都会引起竞争对手的反应。“很少”是少到企业认为有必要彼此紧跟对方行动的程度。企业很少是说每个企业都与它所在的市场大小息息相关。一般而言，当企业的数目少时，每个企业的规模会相应的大，单一企业行业或者垄断是少有的极端事件。
1. Perfect competition---many sellers ofa standardized product.2.Monopolisticcompetition--manysellersofadifferentiatedproduct3.Oligopoly---few sellers of either a standardized or a differentiated product.4.Monopoly---a single seller of a product for which there is no close substitute.
1． 完全竞争——很多商家卖标准化的产品
2． 垄断竞争——很多商家卖差异化的产品
3． 寡头 ——少来那个商家生产出售相同或者差异商品4． 完全垄断——一个商家卖某种产品，产品无相近替代品
Macroeconomic Policy宏观经济政策
Policy makers have at their command two broad classes of policies with which to affect the economy. Monetary policy is controlled by the Federal Reserve System (the Fed). The instruments of monetary policy are changes in the stock of money, changes in the interest rate——the discount rate——at which the Fed lends money to banks, and some controls over the banking system. Fiscal policy is under the control if the Congress, and usually is initiated by the executive branch of the government. The instruments of fiscal policy are tax rates and government spending政策制定者可以自由地运用两大类政策影响经济。货币政策由联邦储备系统管理，其政策工具是调节货币储备，调节利率——贴现率——联邦储备系统借款给银行的利率和一些经由银行系统实施的控制。财政政策由国会控制，通常通过政府行政机构发挥作用，它的政策工具是税率和政府支出。
Political economy affects stabilization policy in more ways than through the costs which policy makers of different political persuasions attach to inflation and unemployment, and the risks they are willing to undertake in trying to improve the economic situation. There is also the so-called political business cycle, which is based on the observation that election results are affected by economic conditions. When the economic situation is improving and the unemployment rate is falling, incumbent presidents tend to be reelected. There is thus the incentive to policy makers running for reelection, or who wish to affect the election results, to use stabilization policy to produce booming economic conditions before elections政治经济在很多方面影响平衡政策而不是仅仅通过具有不同政治观点的政策制定者花在通货膨胀和失业上的代价，以及他们在试图改变经济形势时愿意承担的风险。还有所谓的政治景气循环，它是以对受经济条件影响的选举结果的观察为基础的。当经济状况改善，失业率下降时，现任总统就可能再次竞选。因此激励了再次竞选的政治决策者或想影响竞选结果的人，在竞选之前使用平衡政策来制造经济繁荣的景象。
抽样的五大原因：
1 . Economy . The larger and less accessible the population of interest , the greater the cost of obtaining a census vis a vis collecting a sample . There are times , however , where the population is sufficiently small and accessible that cost differences are negligible .
2 . Timeliness . Generally , it requires less time to collect , analyze , and report the data from a sample than to perform similar operations with a census . If the survey is required in order to make a timely decision , the sample survey has a distinct advantage . Again , if the population is sufficiently small and accessible , this advantage will be diminished . I should be emphasized that inferential statistical procedures are not required following the collection of census data . A mean or proportion is a parameter and is not an estimate .
3 . Destruction of item . When testing destroys or impairs the operation of an item , there is no real choice but to sample .
4 . Infinite population . When the population is unlimited , such as that resulting from an ongoing production process , sampling must be undertaken since a census 15 impossible .
5 . Accuracy . Paradoxically , a sample may be more accurate than a census . This 15 especially the case in surveys that require much information from the respondents . Because of cost and time factors , a sample may permit detailed probing whereas a census frequently involves yes 一no types of responses .
1.节约。统计数字越多、越不易收集，抽样得到统计数字的成本就越高。然而，当总体的规模足够小的时候且容易得到，抽样与普查的成本差距是可以忽略不计的。
2.及时。通常，样本收集、分析和报告数据比用普查做
出相似结果需要的时间更少。如果调查是为了做及时的决定，抽样调查有截然不同的优势。同时，如果总体规模足够小且容易调查，这个优势会被削弱，应该强调的是，推断性统计程序与普查数据无关。
3.破坏性。当实验会毁坏或有害于调查对象时，除了抽样调查就别无选择了。
4.无限总体。当总体是无限的，诸如由正在进行的生产过程引起的，由于普查的不可实施，就应该采取抽样调查。
5.准确。矛盾的是，抽样调查可能比普查更准确，尤其是在调查需要从被调查者那儿获得更多信息的情形下时。因为成本和时间因素，一个样本可能需要仔细调查，而统计数字却常常只需“是”与“否”的回答。
Push Strategies Push strategies rely on a wide variety of in-channel methods to induce , motivate , coerce , or otherwise bring about alliances and cooperative pushing efforts involving retailers , wholesalers , brokers , agents , and other middlemen to help ensure that the seller has his goods and services pushed to consumers . The thrust of the push strategy is toward middlemen , those who are in the distribution chain linking producers to final users . Push strategies include giving rebates cash payments , payments in kind , 5 or other awards to wholesalers and retailers who push the suppliers ' ware and services on to consumers . Such rewards are given to cooperating distributors who stock or prominently display the supplier ' s goods or services . ' The cash payments can be in the form of prizes or goods to be sold by distributors who design award- winning store or window displays of supplier ' s products . They are also awarded to distributors who give preferred shelf space , store space , or store location to the supplier ' s products . Sometimes , the award takes the form of a " spiv " or extra commission to distributors who " push " the supplier ' s particular brand on to buyers . Beer companies notably often arrange extra payments to bartenders who push their brands to the drinking patrons .
推式策略 推式策略依靠多种多样的“渠道内”方法去促使、激发甚至强制或者其他方法来形成联盟及合作，此联盟与合作包括零售商、批发商、经纪人、代理人及其他中间商，目的是确保销售者把其商品服务推给消费者。推式策略的推力作用在中间人身上，就是在分配链中联接生产者和最终使用者的人。推式策略包括给予那些把供应商的商品和服务卖给消费者的批发商和零售商现金回扣，或类似的偿付，或者其它的报酬。这些回报是给那些显著地存储或展示供应商产品或服务的合作分销商的。这种现金付款是以奖品或即将由分销商出售的商品为支付形式的，那些分销商设计了获得奖励的商品或者设计了用于展示供应商产品的橱窗。报酬还被授予给为供销商的产品提供优先的货架空间、存储空间或商店位置的分销商。 有时候这种奖励会以小贩或多余佣金的形式发给那些把供应商的特殊品牌推销给购买者的分销商。啤酒公司经常安排多余的报酬给那些把他们的品牌推销给啤酒老主顾的酒吧男招待。
Pull Strategies The pull strategies are directed at final users and are aimed at motivating them to ask for specific products or services by brand name or service identification . The pull strategies comprise four thrusts :
×To discover new users or find new market segments of existing products or services ;
×To exploit existing products or services by finding new uses ;
×To increase product or service usage by motivating customers to use products or services more often or to use more of each during usage occasion ;
×To modify existing products or services so as to extend the product or service life cycle . The most prevalent among the pull strategies are quizzes , questionnaires , contests , or sweepstakes . These pull strategies account for over 50 % of all sales campaigns . The most notable among them in the United States is the decades-old Pillsbury Bake Contest in which entrants ' cooking recipes are judged , in a nationwide television show , by a panel of " experts " to determine winners of large cash prizes and other awards . Contests can also be won through supposed impartial judgment of best entries containing an answer to a quiz question such as " 1 like Chinese Dynasty Wine because … （in 25 words or less ) .
拉式策略
拉式策略针对的是最终消费者，目的在于由品牌名称或服务的识别激发对产品和服务的特殊要求。
引导策略包括四个有力措施：发现现有产品和服务的新购买者或找到新的市场部分 通过发现它的新用途开发已存在商品和服务 增加产品或服务的使用通过激励消费者更过的使用产品或服务，或者在使用期内程度更深的使用。改变已存在产品或服务来延长产品或服务的生命周期。
在拉策略中最流行的就是测验、问卷调查、比赛或者抽奖。这些策略占据了50%的销售活动。在美国其中最值得注意的是十年一次的，参加比赛的人通过烹饪方法评分的皮尔斯伯里烘烤大赛，这是一个在全国范围内的电视节目，有一个专家组成的专门小组决定获得大量现金奖励和其它奖励的胜利者。比赛是通过公正的评判参加参赛者对测验问题的回答，而评选出优胜者，而问题诸如我喜欢中国的王朝葡萄酒……
OBM is the application of principles of behavioral psychology and the methodologies of behavior modification/applied behavior analysis to the study and control of individual or group behavior analysis to the study and control of individual or group behavior within organizational settings.
理论是行为心理学的应用原则和行为矫正技术/应用行为分析的方法研究和控制个人或团体行为的分析研究和控制个人或群体的行为在组织设置。
名词解释：
Cardinal rankings基数排名one of the two ways to measure utility.In this way,numerical values are assigned to represent utility. 测量实用程序的方法之一，以这种方式，数值被分配来表示实用程序。
Ordinal rankings顺序排名 one of the two ways to measure utility. In this way, utility is measured without a specified unit. Ordinal rankings provide the order of preference without absolute scale of difference in preference 其中一个方法来衡量效用。通过这种方式,没有指定的单位效用来衡量。提供优先的顺序依次排名没有绝对规模偏好的差异
choice-grade beef选择等级牛肉quality measure of beef packaged and sold at different prices. 质量测量的牛肉包装,以不同的价格出售。
Perfect substitution完全替代refers to the products in very much similar qualities that a consumer would just as soon have one as the other指的是产品在非常相似的品质，消费者将很快就有一个
Crest佳洁士 a brand name of toothpaste牙膏品牌的一种
checkout system 校验系统a system in store or supermarket to generate bills of payments for customers and complete the transaction with customers usually automated in U.S
在商店或超市系统生成账单支付的客户和与客户完成交易, 通常是自动的在美国的
credit terms信用证条款period of late payment to be offered by a seller 逾期付款期是由卖方提供
Monetary policy货币政策 the policy that the federal government takes to adjust the money supply, the availability of loanable funds, or the level of interest rates so as to influence general economic activity联邦政府的政策需要调整货币供应,可贷资金的可用性,或水平的利率,从而影响整体经济活动
Fiscal policy 财政政策the federal government influences general economic activity by changing the level of government spending or taxes 联邦政府影响经济活动一般通过改变政府支出或税收水平
mean均值 A mean is the sum of the values of a set of observations divided by the number of observations. 平均值是一组观测值的总和除以观测的数量的总和。
Operations management运营管理 a term shifting from industrial management, manufacturing management, production management, and operations management, because people have found that concepts and techniques for managing production in factories are useful in government and services as well工业管理，生产管理，生产管理和经营管理的一个长期转变，因为人们已经发现，在工厂管理生产的概念和技术是有用的，在政府和服务
Order promising 订货承诺to grant a customer to ship or deliver an order 给予客户运输或交付订单
Order positioning订单定位 arranging when and how to proceed an order安排何时以及如何进行订单
Market-oriented system 市场导向系统a system in which price, output, and volume decisions are made through the interaction of supply and demand market forces rather than by a central government authority价格、产量和数量决定的系统，通过供需市场力量的相互作用而不是由中央政府权威所决定
Sky writing天空写作legible smoke trials from an airplane in which vapors spell out words or promotional phrases. 清晰的烟雾试验从飞机中蒸汽拼出单词或促销短语
Cross promotion交叉推广 coupons on packages which offer a combination of products involving the advertiser’s brand and a non-competing brand or product, usually at reduced price 提供产品的组合，包括广告主的品牌和非竞争的品牌或产品，通常在降低价格
OBM组织行为管理organizational Behavior Management, one of the foundation fields of business administration商业管理领域的一个基础
statistical significance置信水平 percentage of confidence in terms of the statistical result. 统计结果的信心百分之百。