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Simultaneous Listening and Speaking
1. INTRODUCTION
Concurrent listening to source language (SL) and speaking of target language (TL) by interpreters engaging in simultaneous interpretation (SI) constitute one of the most complex cognitive processes a human being can exhibit. As was pointed out by Moser (1997), this is an important challenge for researchers in this field, since an in-depth study of this unique phenomenon will reveal some of the secrets of SI.
The particular importance of this is that these phenomena are observable to outside researchers and can be easily quantified for study purposes. Of course, the fact that listening and speaking processes are observable does not necessarily mean that these two processes are the only ones taking place simultaneously in SI. No one knows exactly what is going on in the interpreter#39;s cognitive process during SI, and it would be erroneous to assume that no information processing is occurring even during the very short moments when both interpreter and speaker remain silent. Rather, it would be reasonable to imagine that some processes that cannot be externally observed are underway. These unobservable cognitive processes might include conversion from SL to TL, storing, note-taking (Gile 1997), receiving signals through visual channels (Bühler 1985) and reading a terminology list or the interpreter#39;s own notes, among other things.
One could argue that multi-processing is not a rare phenomenon and that it also happens in daily life. During everyday small talk, of course, people anticipate what others will say next and form their own answer in advance. People can also read newspapers while talking on the phone. But speaking and listening at the same time is very rare in daily life (Gerver 1976). Nor can the depth of the concurrent cognitive processing involved in SI be compared to that in daily life, since time constraints and the magnitude of the task are totally different. Besides, concurrent jobs found in everyday life also exhibit their own limits. For example, the high traffic accident rate of drivers using cellular phones while driving clearly demonstrates that cognitive limit exists in one#39;s processing capacity.
Since Korean is not an international language, Korean natives interpret both L2 (English) into L1 (Korean), and L1 into L2. In the former case, understanding English is key for quality SI since comprehension of source language is the most important stage in SI from L2 into L1 (Weller 1991). Korean interpreters#39; capacity for listening must be limited due to reduced memory capacity for L2 compared to L1, weaker vocabulary and rules stored in long term memory.
In most cases, the performance of English and Korean SI is judged by the quality of the Korean output since English into Korean SI takes up the most time. Therefore, choosing elegant Korean equivalents rather than just conveying the meaning in the TL is very important. Thus, the following argument for interpreting from L2 into L1 quoted in Weller (1991) does not always apply to English into Korean SI .
The basic argument in favor of working only into one#39;s native language is that the interpreter spends little time on the production phase of interpretation since he is more fluent in the native tongue and instinctively selects the correct word choice, grammatical construction and pronunciation. (Weller 1991: 391)
The problem here is that "concrete words are translated more quickly (and more accurately) than abstract words, and high-frequency words are translated more quickly (and more accurately)" (de Groot 1997). Except for the time factor, retrieval of elegant Korean equivalents from long-term memory consumes some part of the cognitive capacity of the interpreter.
Another difficulty arises from syntactic difference, as is the case with English into Japanese SI (Gile 1991). What Gile asserted can be applied to English into Korean SI since Korean interpreters have to hold the English verb for some time so as to put it into the Korean syntax, spending a considerable amount of memory capacity.
This study examines the following questions:
Will the quality of the concurrent listening and speaking portion by the interpreter in SI be poorer than that of the listening only portion?
Does the proportion of concurrent listening and speaking by the interpreter affect the total quality of the interpretation in any way?
Do the features of SL affect the duration of concurrent listening and speaking by the interpreter?
Do interpreters utilize the pause in SL left by the speaker for their SI in order to decrease the proportion of concurrent listening and speaking?
Concerning concurrent listening and speaking time, Chernov (1979) reports an average of 70.5% of total speaking time in the SL for the English-Russian combination, with a maximum of 89%. Gerver (1974b) found that some interpreters could listen and speak simultaneously for over 75% of the total input-output time, and were still able to interpret correctly over 85% of the input texts. Gerver (1975) obtained results of 65% of the total time for interpreters working from French to English.
None of these studies, however, compare the accuracy of concurrent listening and speaking portions
2. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES
Thirty actual English into Korean SI audio tapes were chosen to obtain statistically meaningful results. As Gile (1994) pointed out, generalizations will be premature if the study is limited to very small samples of subjects. Among the 30 samples, 18 were paired SI, that is, nine SL were each interpreted by two different interpreters. Those were intentionally included to observe the performance of interpreters under the same SL conditions. The material included a US presidential debate, US President Clinton#39;s inauguration ceremony, live coverage of the Gulf War and speeches from international conferences.[ 1 ]1 The use of "real-life" materials is also important in view of the assertion by Gile#39;s (1994) emphasis on "using experimental materials and conditions as close as possible to field conditions."
Eleven professional conference interpreters were involved in the study. Their mother tongue was Korean and English was their strongest passive language. All of them had at least three years of experience. This eliminated the danger of using student interpreters, as Gile (1995) warned "there may be very significant differences in the way professionals, on the one hand, and students or amateur translators/interpreters, on the other, perform I/T tasks."
The original English and Korean interpretations were transcribed, and the audio signals were saved for analysis by a personal computer which could measure as small a time segment as 1 millisecond.
Two simultaneity ratios were set up: 1) a syllable simultaneity ratio (SSR) and, 2) a time simultaneity ratio (TSR). The SSR, the portion of syllables interpreters both listened and spoke concurrently, was measured by counting the number of syllables in the English text with SI on the computer playing it. The TSR was calculated using the following formula:
TSR = TST - LTI - SPIST / TST
(TST = total speaking time, LTI = listening time by interpreter, SPIST = speakers#39; pause within interpreter#39;s speaking time, TST = total speaking time).
Two different evaluation methods were used for quality assessment. For the quality of a sample as a whole, the number of meaning units in the original English speech was calculated and then it was matched against the Korean interpretation version. For example, when there were 10 meaning units in the SL sample and 5 were interpreted into the TL, the sample was judged as 50 % accurate. For the quality of time simultaneity portion and listening portion, an evaluation based on the number of words, not on the meaning unit, was employed. When all the original English words in the listening portion of an English speech were interpreted into the Korean version, the portion was judged as 100% accurate, whereas 50% accuracy was assigned when half of the words in the SL appeared in the TL. This method of evaluation for the simultaneity portion and the listening portion was necessary since the boundary between these portion was not located between sentences all of the time; rather, it was in the middle of sentences most of the time. Some articles or possessive adjectives that are not necessarily interpreted in Korean were not considered in the evaluation. During the quality assessment, importance was given to maintaining consistency of the criteria so as to compare the quality of each sample and portion.
3. RESULTS
Speakers exhibited 77% of speech proportion (SP) while interpreters showed 58% and the SP of interpreter to speaker (I/S) was 0.76. A negative correlation was found between the speaker#39;s SP (SSP) and accuracy as a whole (r = - 0.47 p < 0.01). Interpreter#39;s SP (ISP) demonstrated no change with an increase of the SSP and speaker#39;s syllable per minute (SSPM). Speech rate, or syllables per minute, of a speaker was 231 spm, while that of interpreter was 243 spm, and the I/S ratio was 1.08. The articulation rate of the speaker was 302 spm while that of interpreter was 400 spm, and the I/S was 1.36. Regarding the number of syllables uttered by speakers and interpreters, the I/S ratio was 1.09, which means that interpreters uttered 109% more syllables than speakers.
Interpreters both listened and spoke concurrently for 61% of total syllables uttered by the speaker. The syllable simultaneity ratio (SSR) was not influenced by increasing SSP and SSPM. The SSR, however, showed positive correlations with ISP (r = 0.85 p < 0.001), interpreter syllables per minute (ISPM) (r = 0.52 p < 0.01), SPM I/S ratio (r = 0.33, p < 0.05), SP I/S ( r= 0.56, p < 0.001), and time simultaneity ratio (TSR) (r = 0.73, p < 0.001).
Interpreters listened and spoke concurrently for 40% of the total utterance time. This 40% of the TSR remained unchanged with the increase of speakers#39; speech rate and articulation rate. The TSR, however, showed a positive correlation with SSP (r = 0.53, p < 0.01), ISP (r = 0.79, p < 0.001), interpreter#39;s speech rate (r = 0.58, p < 0.001), SPM I/S ratio (r = 0.41, p < 0.05) and SSR (r = 0.73, p < 0.001). A negative correlation was obtained between the TSR and accuracy as a whole (r = - 0.32, p < 0.05).
A t-test showed that the accuracy of the time simultaneity portion was lower than the accuracy of the listening portion (df = 29, t = 8.81, p < 0.001). The accuracy of the time simultaneity portion showed a stronger negative correlation with SSP (r = - 0.57, p < 0.001) than the accuracy of the listening portion with SSP (r= - 0.35 p < 0.05). Accuracy of the time simultaneity portion showed a stronger positive correlation with SP I/S (r = 0.51, p < 0.001) than the accuracy of the listening portion with SP I/S (r = 0.32 p < 0.05). A stronger negative correlation was found between the accuracy of time simultaneity portion with SSPM (r = - 0.68, p < 0.001) than the accuracy of the listening portion with SSPM (r = - 0.45 p < 0.01). The accuracy of the time simultaneity portion showed a higher positive correlation with SSPM I/S (r = 0.48, p < 0.01) than the accuracy of the listening portion with SSP (r = 0.36 p < 0.05). A stronger negative correlation was obtained between the accuracy of the time simultaneity portion with the SSP (r = - 0.57, p < 0.001) than the accuracy of the listening portion with SSP (r = - 0.35 p < 0.05).
4. DISCUSSION
4.1. SL and TL Factors
The greater SSP over ISP contradicts Barik#39;s assertion (1973) that "T generally engaged in speaking for a greater proportion of the time than S." But it is in line with Lee (1999) who found sentence SP for interpreters was 79.6%, while that for speakers was 86.2% for English into Korean SI. This might be attributable to the unique feature of SI in general. It would be reasonable to assume that interpreters engaging in SI require more processing capacity than speakers.
The fact that ISP is not influenced by SSP indicates the interpreter#39;s processing capacity is already at its limit in keeping up with SL which is faster than the optimal speed of 100-120 wpm (Seleskovitch 1978), or 100wpm (Barik 1975). In this situation, the interpreter cannot increase ISP beyond 58% since a minimum capacity should be reserved for other processing involved in SI. The ISP at 58% means that interpreters fill 42% of total speaking time with silence. Although the audience listening to the SI assumes such silence reflects a loss of information (Dejean Le Féal 1990), interpreters have no other choice in this situation.
The greater I/S articulation rate of 1.36 compared to SSPM I/S of 1.08 suggests that interpreters speak quickly so as to cram their output once they have a chance to speak. Although interpreters utter more words in their SI than the original speech, the quality of the SI is far from being 100%. It becomes clear that, for an omission-free interpretation, more Korean words in TL are necessary.
4.2. Syllable simultaneity ratio
SSR in this study is similar to the TSR in other related findings. The SSR is also about equal to ISP. The unchanged SSR with increasing SSP and SSPM should be understood to mean that the interpreters#39; capacity is already at maximum level and cannot increase SSR further. The positive correlation between SSR and SP I/S as well as SPM I/S means the overlapping syllable portion increases as the interpreter increases SP.
4.3. Accuracy of time simultaneity portion
Theoretically, interpreters should be able to speak with pauses only for breathing during SI. But it was not the case in SI since TSR remained at only 40%. This clearly shows that very complex information processing is going on in the interpreters#39; cognitive system. We cannot attribute this low TSR to a lack of capacity on the part of interpreters, since they are top ranking interpreters with good reputations. In optimal condition samples, they recorded very high accuracy. Therefore, the reason for the low TSR seems to be the unique situation of English into Korean SI.
The TSR increases as interpreters and speakers accelerate their utterances. One noteworthy observation is that TSR was free from the change in SSPM or speakers#39; articulation rate. In other words, TSR was influenced by the SP factor rather than by speed of SL.
Figure 1
Figure 1 answers some important questions about the relations between SSP, ISP and TSR. The first is that the speaker#39;s pause within ISP decreases as SSP increases and vice-versa. This is because the gap between ISP and TSR is the speaker#39;s pause within ISP. As the SSP increases, speaker#39;s pause within ISP decreases proportionally, thereby leaving ISP unchanged. This quite reasonable assumption is confirmed by the correlation (r = 0.87, p < 0.001) between the changes in speaker#39;s pause in total utterance time and speaker#39;s pause
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