Linguistics语言学归纳.doc

Linguistics

1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)
phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)
phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.
morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation.
syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.
pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.

Some distinctions in linguistics:
1) Prescriptive & descriptive
Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use
Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)

2) Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的
Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.
Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.
3) Langue & parole 语言&言语
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.
4) Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

Design features of language:
1) arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
2) Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
3) Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of language enables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
4) Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制
5) Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）
2.Functions of language:
1) Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.
2) Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.
3) Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.

Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.

3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaning
The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function
Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.
Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.

Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出
Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出

4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb.
Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua)
Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.
Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形 陈述句
Surface structure
5. Lexical meaning:
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, features
Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other

6.
Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)
Speech act theory: (John Austin)
Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses.
Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.
Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)
The maxim of quantity:
Say no less than the conversation requires.
Say no more than the conversation requires.
The maxim of quality:
Don't say what you believe to be false.
Don't say things for which you lack evidence.
The maxim of manner:
Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.
Be brief. Be orderly.
The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.

7. Language change
Addition of new words:
1) Coinage:创新词
Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato
2) Clipped words: 缩略词
Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger
3) Blending: 紧缩法
Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder
4) Acronyms: 首字母缩略词
CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technology
EU VIP B2B CPI
5) Back-formation: 逆构词法
To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate
6) Function shift
n.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreat
adj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow
7) Borrowing
Bonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony
Balloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zero
Kungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage
8) Derivation 派生词
Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness
9) Compounds 复合词
Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-license
Undertake without landlady handover whitewash

8.Register 语域
Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.
Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.
Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.

9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说
Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.

10. Language Acquisition
Theories of child language acquisition:
1) The behaviorist
Imitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)
But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.
2) The innatist
Language Acquisition device(LAD) Chomsky
It proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.
It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.
Universal Grammar (UG)

3) The interactionist
It holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talk

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric Lenneberg
LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.
Two versions:
Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.
The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.

11. Second Language Acquisition
Positive transfer正迁移 facilitate
Negative transfer 负迁移 interfere or hinder
Interlanguage 中介语
It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.
Fossilization 石化现象
It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.

Acquisition 习得
It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.
Learning 学习
It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.
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