合作原则.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,*,Conversational Implicature,CONTENT,Cooperation Principle,Non-observance of conversational maxims,Properties of Conversational Implicature,H.P.Grice,Paul Grice,(March 13,1913 August 28,1988),usually publishing under the name H.P.Grice,H.Paul Grice,or Paul Grice,was a British-educated,philosopher of language,who spent the final two decades of his career in the United States.Grices work on the nature of meaning has influenced the philosophical study of semantics.His theory of implicature is among the most important and influential contributions to contemporary pragmatics.“Meaning”（1957）,Grice提出了“,言外之意,”的理论。凡用逻辑语义理论解决不了的意义，则需要借助“言外之意”理论加以解决。言外之意有多种，其中突出的就是“,会话含义,”。会话含义是人们根据会话原则是否得到遵守而推导出来的一种意义，这是随语境变化而变化的语用意义。,Cooperation Principle,哲学基础,：,Grice套用了康德的量、质、关系和方式四个哲学范畴体系：任何事物都有自身一定的量的规定性，质的规定性，有与其他事物的关系，有自身存在的方式。,Grice构建的意义理论是以他对语言和思维的关系,的理解为基础的。,Thought,Reality,L,anguage,Cooperation Principle,Paul Grice proposed that all speakers,regardless of their cultural background,adhere to a basic principle governing conversation which he termed,The Cooperative Principle,.Under this principle fall four categories of maxim.,Quantity 数量,1)Make your contribution as informative,as required.,2)Do not make your contribution more,informative than is required.,不多说，,也不少说,Quality 质量,1)Do not say what you believe to be false.,2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.,说真话,Relation 相关,Be relevant.话题要相关。,说话要相关，贴切。,E.g.,1.A,：我家来客人了，不够地方住，可以去你家住两晚吗?,B,：当然可以啊，我家客房正空着呢!欢迎光临!,2.,A:Lets play tennis.,B:I have a stomachache.,Manner 方式,Be perspicuous,1)avoid obscurity of expression.避免晦涩,2)avoid ambiguity.避免歧义,3)be brief.简单明了,4)be orderly.井井有条,E.g.,Lets get the kids something.,Okay,but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M,.,Grice把交谈看作是人类有目的性的、合理的社会行为之一，因此，上述的各条准则并非只在进行交谈时需要遵守，在,从事其他的社会活动时也同样适用：,以下是适用于其他社会活动的例子:,1,.,Quantity:,If you are assisting me to mend a car.I expect your contribution to be neither more nor less than is required.If,for example,at a particular stage I need four screws,I expect you to hand me four,rather than two or six.,2.,Quality:,I expect your contributions to be genuine and not spurious.If I need sugar as an ingredient in the cake you are assisting me to make,I do not expect you to hand me salt:if I need a spoon,I do not expect a trick spoon made of rubber.,Violation of CP occurs,what follows?,Implicature,(会话含义，言外之意),Implicature,Levinson（1983:131）把Grice的含义归纳为以下几种：,非自然意义,直,义,含义,规约含义,非规约含义,会话含义,非会话含义,一般会话含义,特殊会话含义,conversational/non-conventional implicature,会话/非规约含义,means the additional,unstated meaning,that is,what a speaker can imply,suggest,or mean more than what is said,as distinct from what the speaker literally says.,和说话人所用的单词、词语之间的关系是间接的，它固然要以话语的语义内容为基础，但说话人所要表达的内容无疑要多余话语的语义内容。,Grice(1975)lists four possible situations where the cooperation principle can be violated:,1),The speaker may violate the cooperation principle delibrately but without making the hearer realize it.,In this case,the speaker is most likely to mislead the hearer.For example,when someone is telling a lie,he violates the Quality Maxim by saying untrue things.But if the hearer dose not realize this and assumes that the speaker follows the cooperative principle,he will be misled.,2),The speaker may aviod cooperation in an explicit way by telling the hearer that he is unwilling to cooperate.,If someone asks a question,the hearer can say that he doesnt want to answer,or he cannot say any more.,Non-observance of conversational maxims,flouting a maxim 明显违反,violating a maxim 暗中违反,opting out a maxim放弃遵守,infringing a maxim 无意违反,suspending a maxim 搁置,Flouting a maxim 明显违反准则,A speaker blatantly fails to observe a maxim at the level of what is said,with the deliberate intention of generation an implicature.,e.g.,A:Is he nice?,B:She seems to like him.,Violating a maxim 暗中违反准则,In his 1975 paper,Grice defined this category specifically as the unostentatious non-observance of a maxim.If a speaker violates a maxim,he will be liable to mislead.(1975:49),e.g.,Colleague A:Why is Ben absent?,Colleague B:His wife is ill.,E.g.,C,olleague A,:lts impossible.How can it be,that,Dr,.W,allace rather than Dr.,M,ey is going,to be promoted to the,director,s position?,Who says that?,Colleague B:,It is true.But,I cannot tell you who sa,y,s it.,Infringing a maxim 无意违反准则,ln the case of infringing a maxim,a speaker fails to,observe a maxim,with no intention of generating,any implicature,nor with any intention of deceiving.,The non-observance stems from,imperfect linguistic,performance,rather than from any desire on the part,of the speakers to generate a conversational,implicature,(,Thomas,1995:74).,Imperfect linguistic performance:an imperfect,command of the language,ones performance is,impaired in some way nervousness,drunkenness,excitement,etc.),some cognitive impairment,or the,speaker is constitutionally incapable of speaking,clearly,to the point,etc.,Suspending a maxim 搁置准则,.,in our lives there are certain events in,which participants are not expected to,observe the maxims;and hence,t,h,ere is no implicature arising from the non-observance of the maxims.,It is well-know that in ever,y,culture there are,taboos an,d,euphemisms,and that,euphemisms will always be used when taboo,things or events are mentioned.,.,.may be culture,-spec,ific o,r,sp,ecific to particular events.,Properties of Conversational Implicature,1.Defeasibility/cancellability,（,可取消性,）,2.Non detachability（不可分离性）,3.Calculability（可推导性）,4.non-conventionality,（,非规约性,）,Defeasibility/cancellability可取消性,An implicature can be canceled by,additional,information without contradiction or anomal,y,.,This allows the speaker to imply,something,and then deny that implicature.,指在一定的语言或非语言的语境之中，一个句子原来所具有的会话含义可能会消失（何兆熊，1999：161）。,会话含义是由听话者根据具体语境推导所得而非说话者所说话语的字面意义，因此说话者可以通过特定手段以否认听话者的推论。,E.g.,A,:Do you want some tea?,B,:Tea would keep me awake.,(But I do want to stay awake tonight.),Without the part in the brackets,B,would implicate that he does not want any tea.However,by adding the bracketed part,he succeeds in cancelling the implicature.,甲：你见到他女朋友了么？,乙：见到了。,甲：怎样？漂亮吗？,乙：漂亮，至少不难看！,Non detachability 不可分离性,They can be non-detachable.,By this Grice means that the implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said,not to linguistic form,and therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words of the utterance for synonyms.,会话含义是依附于话语的语义内容，而不是语言形式。因此，我们能用同义成分来替换话语的某一部分，而不改变原来的含义。,E.g.,Johns a genius.,John is a mental prodigy.(,智力奇才,),John is an exceptionally clever human being.,Johns a big brain.,Calculability,可推导性,The lis,t,ener can conclude the corresponding conversational implicature from the literal meaning of the words,the rules of the cooperative principle and the context.,听话人一方面根据话语的字面意思，另一方面根据合作原则的各项准则，推导出相应的语用含义。,E.g.,Daughter,:,M,um,you havent given me my,weekly pocket,money yet.,Mother,:Lets see how you are doing with this,Saturdays piano session.,Implicated permise:,Whether or not youII be,g,i,ven your weekl,y,pocket money is based on,your performance during the piano session.,Implicated conclusion:,If you do well in the,piano,session,youII get the pocket money,otherwise,you wont get it.,约会后。,男：你喜欢我不？,女：你说呢？,N,on-conventionality非规约性,Conventional meaning is context-free and stable,while,Cl will vary or even be lost as the context,changes.lts related t,o,cancellability and non-detachability,.,会话含义是通过合作原则中的各项准则，通过话语的字面意义并结合语境推导出来的。先有字面意义，才有语用含义。因此，含义不是字面意义，也不是字面意义的一部分。字面意义在话语中是不变的，而语用含义却可能各种各样，随着语境的变化，含义也可以变化或消失。,E.g.,Daughter:,M,um,ld like to buy the teddy bear over,t,h,ere.,Mother:,How old are you,my dear?,Colleague A:Would you like to have dinner with me,this evening?,Colleague B:,M,y mother doesnt like me to dine out.,Colleague A:,How old are you,?,Colleague B:lm twenty-seven.,(its not suitable),(,you are old enough),Its cold here.,Question:,Why dont people observe the maxims just say what they mean so as to avoid all guesswork and misunderstanding?,Thank you!,