言语行为理论.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Unit 1,Austins Speech Act Theory,言语行为理论是语用学研究中一个十分重要的理论，它旨在回答语言是怎样用之于“行”，而不是用之于“指”这样一个问题，体现了“言”则“行”这样的语言观。,这一理论在,20,世纪,50,年代末由哲学家首先提出，在此后的,20,、,30,年间，在语言学界产生了很大的影响。,如今，言语行为理论在语言研究中的地位已经确立，这一理论已经深入人心，在各种语言科研中“行为”这一概念常被用作研究的基点。,了解这一理论的缘起和它的基本内容对语用研究具有重要意义。,1.1 Words and deeds,Speech Act Theory(SAT for short)originated with J.L.Austin.,哲学家历来所持的一种假设是：陈述之言（,statement,）的作用或是描述事物的状态，或是陈述某一事实。陈述之言所作的描述或陈述只能或是真实、或是谬误。,(Before the speech act theory was advanced,it was believed that the business of a statement is either to describe or to state.It must be either true or false.,）,哲学家历来所关心的只限于句子的可验证性（,A sentence is not meaningful unless it can be verified,i.e.,tested for its truth or falsity.,）,Austin,虽然是个哲学家，但他对哲学界语言研究中的这种传统的观点提出了怀疑。,他认为“许多陈叙之言只不过是伪陈伪叙,（,pseudo-statement,），人们所说的许多话语貌似陈叙，但它们根本不以坦直地记叙或传递有关事实的信息为目的，或是仅是部分地以此为目的。,”,（,1962:1,）,据此，,Austin,首先区分了两大类话语：言有所述（,constative,）和言有所为（,performative,）。,言有所述的话语是可以验证的，即或是真实，或是谬误；言有所为的话语都是不能验证的，它们无所谓真实或谬误，因为它们是被用来实施某一种行为的。,Constative,vs.,Performative,The,constative,utterance is verifiable and it is either true or false.,The,performative,utterance is used to perform an action,so it has no truth value.,For example,：,Congratulations,！,China has the biggest population in the world.,(1)“I do.”,as uttered in the course of a marriage ceremony.,(2)“I name this ship Elizabeth.”,-as uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.,(3)“I give and bequeath my,watch to my brother.”,(4)“I bet you sixpence it will,rain tomorrow.”,-as uttered when making a bet.,说话人在说这些话的时候不是在作陈述或描述，而是在完成某一动作,-,如结婚、命名、遗赠、打赌。当然，,Austin,所举的这四个例子都是用于某些习俗化的活动中的话语，但这种通过说话来做某一件事的情况并不限于这些习俗化的活动，如“,I promise”,、“,I warn”,、“,I apologize”,、“,I welcome”,等等。在说这些话时，说话人分别在实施“许诺”、“警告”、“道歉”、“欢迎”等动作。,1.2 Felicity conditions,虽然言有所为的句子不具有真假性，但仍然需要满足一定的条件才是合适或可能的。,Austin,认为有三个条件必须满足，他称这些条件为“合适条件（,felicity conditions,）”。（,P.30,）,A simplified version of the Felicity Conditions suggested by Austin is as follows:,A.There must be a relevant conventional procedure,and the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.,（必须有相关的规约程序，相关的人员和环境必须是合适的。）,B.The procedure must executed correctly and completely.,（程序必须是被正确地、全面地执行。）,C.Very often,the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts,feelings and intentions,and must follow it up with actions as specified.,（相关人员必须具有相关的思想、情感和意图，而且必须按要求付诸行动。）,所以，在新船下水仪式上，只有被指定的人才有权利给新船命名，这个人必须按照相关程序讲话。又如，赠送手表的人必须有手表；为下雨打赌的人，如果第二天下雨，必须给参与打赌的人付,6,便士等等。,1.3 Properties of an explicit,performative,utterance,Austin drew a further distinction within,performative,utterances between what he called implicit or primary,performatives,and explicit,performatives,.,Explicit,performative,显性施为句,:,I promise to be there at two oclock.(use a,performative,verb),Implicit or primary,performative,隐性施为句,:,Ill be there at two oclock./How about going by train?/Im sorry.(do not employ,performative,verbs),For example,we can perform the act of promising in English in either of two ways:by saying,(1)Ill be there at two oclock.,(2)I promise to be there at two,oclock.,The first of these utterances,(1),is a primary,performative,;the second,(2),which contains a form of the,Performative,verb promise,is an explicit,performative,.,The fact that a primary and an explicit,Performative,may be said to perform the same speech act does not imply that the sentences in question have the same meaning.,An explicit,Performative,is typically more specific in meaning than a primary,Performative,.If someone says,in the appropriate circumstances,I promise to be there at two oclock,he can hardly deny subsequently that he has made a promise.,But if he says“Ill be there at two oclock”,unless the context is such as to exclude the possibility of any other interpretation,he might reasonably claim that he was merely predicting,rather than promising,that he would be there at two oclock;and the fulfillment of his prediction might have been conditional upon factors over which he had no control.,由于隐性施为句没有明确的施为动词,所以它所实施的言语行为可能会有不同的理解，如：,Ill be there.,(=I promise to be there;,=I warn you Ill be there.),因此，要恰当理解隐性施为句必须依靠语境。,Properties of an explicit,performative,utterance(P.20),1.4 Locution,illocution,and,perlocution,So far we have discussed the theory of speech acts on the basis of the distinction between saying something and doing something with language.But Austin soon came to realize that this is an untenable distinction.,To the primary statement,(1)The cat is on the mat,There corresponds the explicitly,performative,statement,(2)I tell you that the cat is on the mat.,Which contains the,performative,verb tell.,Saying(or asserting)that something is so is itself a kind of doing.,Constative,utterances,or statements,are therefore just one kind of,performatives,;and they too may be primary or explicit.,Another problem worthy of mention is that the presence of,performative,verb does not necessarily make an utterance itself,performative,in the way indicated by the verb,as in:,Peter,Mary thanks you.,Owing to these problems and others,J.Austin rejected the distinction between,constatives,and,performatives,.,Instead,he proposed a new and more general framework of speech act analysis.(P.22),根据,Austin,的新模式，一个人在说话的时候，在大多数情况下，同时实施了三种行为：言内行为（,locutionary,act,、言,外行为（,illocutionary act,）、,和言后行为（,perlocutionary,act,）。,A,locutionary,act is an act of saying:the production of a meaningful utterance(the utterance of certain noises,the utterance of certain words in a certain construction,and the utterance of them with a certain,meaning in the favorite philosophical,sense of that word,i.e.with a certain,sense and a certain reference).,(Austin,1962:94).,(2)An illocutionary act is an act performed in saying something,making a statement or promise,issuing a command or request,asking a question,christening a ship,etc.,(3)A,perlocutionary,act is an act performed by means of saying something:getting someone to believe that something is so,persuading someone to do something,moving someone to anger,consoling someone in his distress,etc.,1.5(Illocutionary)Speech acts classified,According to Austin,(illocutionary)speech acts fall into certain types in terms of their illocutionary force:,a.,verdictives,b.,exercitives,c.,commissives,d.,behabitives,e.,expositives,Austin,的分类是十分粗糙的，它的最大的缺点在于缺乏一个明确的分类标准，实际上他并不是在对言外行为进行分类，而是在对行事动词进行分类。,Austin,推断，在一本英语词典中可以找到一千多个这样的行事动词。显然，,Austin,的分类缺乏科学性和系统性，因此并没有被广泛地接受，却招致许多学者的批评。,I.,VERDICTIVES,Verdictives,consist in the delivering of a finding,of of,ficial,or unofficial,upon,evidence,or reasons as to value or fact,so far as these are distinguishable.A,verdictive,is a judicial act as distinct from legislative or executive acts,which are both,exercitives,.,But some judicial acts,in the wider sense that they are done by judges instead of,for example,juries,really are,exercitive,.,Verdictives,have obvious,connexions,with truth and falsity,soundness and,unsoundness,and fairness and,unfairness.,That the content of a verdict is true or false is shown,for example,in a dispute over an umpires calling,“Out”,“,Three strikes”,etc.,Examples are,;,acquit place put it at grade,assess characterize convict interpret as Rule estimate rank,value diagnose find(as a matter of fact)understand,calculate locate measure rate,describe,analyse,An,exercitive,is the giving of a decision in,favour,of or against a certain course of action,or advocacy of it.It is a decision that something is to be so,as distinct from a,judgement,that it is so:it is advocacy that it should be so,as opposed to an estimate that it is so;it is an award as opposed to an assessment,;,it is a sentence as opposed to a verdict.Arbitrators and judges make use of,exercitives,as well as issuing,verdictives,.,Its consequences may be that others are“compelled,”,or“allowed,”,or“not allowed”to do certain acts.,appoint degrade demote,dismiss excommunicate name,order command direct,sentence fine grant,levy vote for nominate,enact reprieve veto,dedicate declare closed declare open,proclaim announce quash,countermand annul repeal,choose claim give,bequeath pardon resign,warn advise plead,pray entreat beg,urge press recommend,Typical contexts in which,exercitives,are used are in,:,(,1,),filling offices and appointments,candidatures,elections,admissions,resignations,dismissals,and applications,(2)ad vice,exhortation,and petition,(3),enablements,orders,sentences,and annulments,(4)the conduct of meetings and business,5)rights,claims,accusations,etc,.,3.,COMMISSIVES,The whole point of a,commissive,is to commit the speaker to a certain course of action.Examples are,:,prom,i,se undertake am determined to,mean to propose to envisage,guarantee,vow,dedicate myself to,adopt espouse,bind myself intend plan shall engage pledge myself agree declare for champion oppose,contract give my word purpose contemplate,swear,b,et,consent side with embrace,favour,declare my intention,4.BEHABITIVES,Behabitives,include the notion of reaction to other people,s,behaviour,and fortunes and of attitudes and expressions of attitudes to someone else,s past conduct or imminent conduct.There are obvious,connexions,with both stating or describing what our feelings are and expressing,in the sense of venting our feelings,though,behabitives,are distinct from both of these.,Examples are,:,1.For apologies we have“apologize,”,.,2.For thanks we have,“,thank”,.,3.For sympathy we have “deplore”,“commiserate”,“,compliment”,“,condole”,“,congratulate”,“felicitate”,“sympathize”,.,4.For attitudes we have“resent”,“dont,mind”,“,pay tribute”,“criticize”,“,grumble about,”,“complain of”,“,applaud,”,“overlook”,“commend,”,“deprecate”,and the,non-,exercitive,uses of“blame”,“approve”,and“,favour,”,.,5.For greetings we have“welcome,”,“bid you farewell,”,.,6.For wishes we have,“,bless”,“curse”,“toast”,“,drink,to”,and“wish,”,(in its strict,performative,use).,7.For challenges we have“dare”,“defy”,“protest”,“challenge”,.,5.,EXPOSITIVES,Expositives,are used in acts of exposition involving the expounding of views,the conducting of arguments,and the c,l,arifying of usages and of references.,1.affirm,deny,state,describe,class,identify,2.remark,mention,interpose,3,.,inform,apprise,tell,answer,rejoin,4.testify,report,swear,conjecture,doubt,know,believe,5.accept,concede,withdraw,agree,object to,adhere to,recognize,repudiate,correct,revise,6,.,postulate,deduce,argue,neglect,emphasize,7.begin by,turn to,conclude by,7 a.,interpret,distinguish,analyse,define,7b.illustrate,explain,formulate,7,c,.mean,refer,call,understand,regard as,Principles of Conversation,The co-operative principle,In making conversation,Grice holds that thee is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.,Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.,The maxim of quantity,1.Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).,2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.,The maxim of quality,1.Do not say what you believe to be,false.,2.Do not say that for which you lack,adequate evidence.,The maxim of relation,Be relevant.,The maxim of manner,1.Avoid obscurity of expression.,2.Avoid ambiguity.,3.Be brief.,4.Be orderly.,When we violate these maxims,in some situations,conversational,implicature,will arise.,A:Do you know where Mr.X lives?,B:Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.,(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr.Xs address.),A:Would you like to come to,our party tonight?,B:Im afraid Im not,feeling so well today.,A:The hostess is an awful bore.Dont,you think?,B:The roses in the garden are beautiful,arent they?,(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess),A:Shall we get something for the,kids?,B:yes.But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.,(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).,