英语基础写作1专题培训课件.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Writing,第一部分 基础写作,第一章 句子,1.1,英语的句子,1.1.1,句子的定义及成分,句子（,sentence,）是语言交际活动的基本单位，人们通过它来表达思想，传递信息。句子是由单词组成，但在组成句子时必须遵循一定的语法规则。例如：句子的第一个字母必须大写，并以句号（,.,）、问号（,?,）或感叹号（,!,）结尾。,一般来讲，英语的句子主要由两部分构成，即主语（,subject,）与谓语（,predicate,）。除了这两部分以外，还有宾语（,object,）、表语（,predicative,）、定语（,attributive,）和补语（,complement,）等。,1.1.2,句子的种类,句子按说话的目的可以分为陈述句,疑问句,祈使句和感叹句四类：,陈述句（,statements,）用来叙述一种事情或陈述一个事实，在英语里是最常见的句子。例如：,He once lived and worked here.,疑问句（,questions,）用来提出疑问或问题。写作者经常利用疑问句引出问题，以便在下文中进一步论述。疑问句有,4,种：,一般疑问句：,Are you Chinese?,Can you speak English?,特殊疑问句：,What subjects did you study at middle school?,Where are you going?,选择疑问句：,Do you want coffee or tea?,Are you a teacher or a worker?,反意疑问句：,He teaches English,doesnt he?,He doesnt teach English,does he?,祈使句（,imperatives,）通常用来表示一种请求,命令或建议。例如：,Come along with me!,Do remember to say hello to your parents for me.,感叹句（,exclamations,）用于表示作者的喜怒哀乐等强烈感情,.,如果使用恰当，可以使文章更生动，更有特色。,How hard she works!,What inspiring news it is!,1.1.3,句子的类型,句子按结构可以分为简单句、并列句和复合句。,简单句（,The simple sentence,）,简单句是人们为自己辩护或陈述自己观点时经常使用的句式。从语法上讲，简单句只有一套主谓结构，一个或几个并列主语和谓语。它的特点是简洁明了。例如：,All roads lead to Rome.,This little boy is always asking the teacher all sorts of questions.,要想学好英语，首先要掌握好简单句这,5,种基本句型，因为所有英语句子都是通过这,5,种句型扩展而成的，这是提高英语写作水平的基础。,1,）主语,+,系动词,+,表语（,S+V+P,）,3,）主语,+,及物动词,+,宾语（,S+V+O,）,2,）主语,+,不及物动词（,S+V,）,4,）主语,+,动词,+,间接宾语,+,直接宾语 （,S+V+OI+OD,）,5,）主语,+,谓语,+,宾语,+,补语（,S+V+O+C,）,注意：,如果简单句使用过多，文章会显得单调乏味,结构松散。,2.,并列句（,The compound sentence,）,将两个或更多独立的句子用并列连词连接起来就可以构成并列句。在列举中至少有两套平行的简单主谓结构。但无论有几套主谓结构,各分句必须对等,以保持整个句子的平衡。可以引导并列句的连词有,and,but,or,nor,for,so,eitheror,neithernor,not onlybut also,等。例如,:,I like milk,but I dont like cheese.,Either you improve your work or I shall dismiss you.,还有连接副词,如：,however,therefore,moreover,nevertheless,besides,furthermore,then,consequently,等也以帮助构成并列句。例如：,There was no news,；,nevertheless,he went on hoping.,当两个独立的简单句关系很密切时,可以用分号把它们隔开。如,:,John made meals;his wife did the laundry.,如果用并列连词连接两个句子,连词前用逗号。如,:,We must hurry,or well be late.,如果用连接副词,两句之间应该用分号,连接词后面还要加逗号,这一点与并列连词不同。如,:,All figures have been checked;however,the totals are still wrong.,并列句主要用于,:,1,）列举事实,如,:,Jane is a manager,her brother is a doctor and her sister is a famous actress.,2,）表明先后顺序,如,:,At first,the students dont know what to do,but soon they learned and started to work fast.,3,）表示对比或对照,如,:,He is active,while his younger brother is quiet.,4,）说明原因,如,:,She must have sat up all night,for she looked tired and sleepy.,5,）两者取一,如,:,Either you do it at once or Ill ask someone else to take your place.,注意：如果并列句使用过多，句子就会显得又长又单调,文章也会显得层次不清,失去重点。尤其是有的学生过多使用,and,和,but,，导致作文有时读起来让人不知所云。所以,要有目的地练习使用不同句型。,3.,复合句（,The complex sentence,）,复合句包括一个主句和一个或多个从句，即主从复合句，其中主句为句子的主体。复合句中包括名词性从句,即主语,宾语，表语和同位语从句，还有定语和状语从句。使用主从复合句时要注意选择好主句，并注意主句与从句之间的关系,特别是注意各种关联词的用法。例如,:,What he said made me angry.(,从句作主语,),The students said that they needed loan.(,从句作宾语,),The fact was that he needed a car.(,从句作表语,),He denied the fact that he needed a car.(,从句作同位语,),He is the person(whom)Im looking for.(,从句作定语,),When I pressed the bottom,the lift stopped.(,从句作状语,),复合句不仅可以用于陈述多个事情,而且能够表明事情之间的先后顺序,逻辑关系和重要性。这样作文就会显得层次分明,条理清晰,重点突出,富有变化。但是我们也要避免走向另一个极端,即将句子写得太长,从句过多。,还有的句子至少包括两个主句和一个或一个以上的从句，有人将此类句子称为并列复合句。此类句子灵活性最大,结构也趋于复杂,写作时容易出现问题,故需要特别注意。例如,:,She was a bit dizzy at first and then lost consciousness because she hadnt had enough sleep.,Before you decide to buy a new camera,please read the directions carefully and then pay for it.,在使用并列复合句时,要特别注意句子之间的逻辑关系,分清哪些概念是平行关系,需要并列起来,;,哪些概念是从属关系,需要用从句表示。只有这样才能使你写出语言紧凑、表达生动的句子来，也会给你的作文争光添彩。,1.2,英语句子的转换与扩展,在复杂的语言交流中，仅仅使用简单句或是掌握一种表达方法是很难满足交流的需要。因此我们有必要了解英语句式的种类，即：简单句、并列句和复合句，并能根据思想表达的需要，掌握一些句型转换的方式，将简单句扩展为其它几种句式种类，使各种句式交替使用，这样可以丰富我们的语言表达能力，使我们写出的句子更灵活、更准确、更地道。,1.2.1,简单句的转换与扩展,1.,句型的转换,对于同一句话，我们可以通过词汇手段或语法手段，采用不同的表达方法，以达到句子多样性的目的。例如：“她法语很好”，我们可以译成：,She knows French very well.,She has a good command of French.,She has a good knowledge of French.,Her French is perfect/wonderful.,再比如：“他这样做是对的”，我们可以译成：,He is right to do that.,He is right in doing that.,Its right for him to do that.,2.,添加排比结构,将两个或两个以上平等的词、词组或句子用连接词连接起来就可以构成排比结构。此等结构是扩展简单句的一个重要方法，也是写好对称句式的基础。可以用来连接平行结构的词很多，如：,and,but,either.or,neither.nor,not only.but also,not.but,等。,Either you must improve your work or I shall fire you.,He neither has a car,nor does he have a bike.,1.2.2,简单句变成并列句,Tom may be young.He is not immature.,我们最好将这句话变为并列句：,Tom may be young,but he is not immature.,再比如：,Im a boy.Im nineteen.Now Im studying at a college.,应变为：,Im a nineteenyearold boy and Im now studying at a college.,在学生的作文里，我们经常可以看到，有的学生写出的句子绝大多数是简单句。虽然简单句容易写，错误少，但如果简单句用的过多，会使语言显得幼稚，缺乏深度，不能表达复杂的思想活动。,1.2.3,简单句变成复合句,我们可以在简单句的基础上添加从句使其变为复合句。从句可以分为名词性从句、定语从句和状语从句。它们可以分别在句子中做主语、表语、宾语、定语和状语。,1,）名词性从句,名词性从句起名词作用，在句子中做主语或宾语。它一般可由连词,that,、特殊疑问词和关系代词引导。如：,That he needed a car was obvious.,How he manages to get the ticket is beyond us.,He bought her what she needed.,2,）定语从句,定语从句的作用主要用来修饰名词或代词。它通常由关系代词引导。如：,He is the person(whom/who)I m looking for.,Ive never taken anything that doesnt belong to me.,3,）状语从句,状语从句可以修饰动词、形容词或副词,在句子中可以表示时间、地点、方式、条件、让步等。如：,When he woke up,he found everybody had gone.,If you study hard,youll pass the exam.,1.3,中国学生英语作文句子的常见错误,1.3.1,主谓不一致,主谓不一致指主语与谓语在人称和数上没有保持一致。这个看似简单的问题经常被忽视，尤其是在学生的作文中。,例如：,This building,have,just been painted.(,应改为,has),John always,take,No.1 bus.(,应改为,takes),There,was,a few books on the shelves.(,应改为,were),那么，主语与谓语人称和数应该如何确定呢？请注意以下几点基本用法：,1.,用“,and”,连接两个或两个以上名词做主语时，谓语动词通常用复数形式，例：,The door and the desk need repairing.,2.,由“,not onlybut also”,“eitheror”,“neithernor”,“nor”,等连接的并列名词，其谓语动词单复数应根据最接近谓语的主语来决定。,例：,Neither the head leader nor other teachers,have,a better way to help the poor boy.,Either you or he,is,wholly right.,3.,当主语后面插入 “,as well as”,“alone with”,，“,together with”,“with”,，“,except”,，“,rather than”,等词组时，主语的数不受插入部分的影响，谓语动词的数取决于主语。,例如：,Tom,as well as his friends,is,playing football happily.,4.,由“,both,few,many+of+,名词”构成的主语需复数形式的谓语动词；由“,all,most,none,some,，,half,any+of+,名词”等构成的主语，其谓语动词的数取决于最靠近的名词的数。,例如：,Both of them are right.,None of the ink is brown.,Half of his holidays are spent in the country.,5.,主语为,army,class,crowd,family,group,public,team,等集合名词时，若强调整体，谓语动词需要用单数；若强调组成该整体的独立的个体时，用复数。,例如：,The family goes out for a walk every afternoon.,The family are all music lovers.,但,people,police,cattle,clergy,poultry,militia,livestock,等集合名词意义上是复数概念，其谓语动词总要用复数。,例如：,Cattle were not allowed to go into that piece of land.,Have the poultry beeen fed?,Many old people live alone.,6.,表示时间、钱、度量等名词的量被看成整体时，谓语用单数；这个量若被看成单个个体时，谓语用复数：,Six miles is nothing for him,a famous runner.,It was said that the past two months were very cold.,7.,关系代词“,who”,“that”,“which”,做主语时，谓语动词取决于它们所指代的先行词：,He is the person who is going to be rewarded.,Air is a mixture,which consists of oxygen,nitrogen and other gases.,8.,由,there,或,here,引起的句子中谓语通常要与最邻近的主语保持一致。,There are two boys and a girl in the classroom.,Here is a pen and a few pencils for you.,There was a desk and two chairs in the room.,9.,一般情况下，从句做主语时被看做是单数，故谓语动词应用单数形式。,Whether he will come or not is uncertain.,That we need more equipment is quite obvious.,但是以,what,引导的从句做主语时，有时表示单数意义，有时表示复数意义。故谓语动词的形式应依,what,从句的意义而定。,例如：,What I want to do is to help you.,What they want are promises.,10.,由,and,连接的两个单数名词作主语时，如果指的是同一个人，同一种事物，或同一个概念，谓语动词应用单数形式。,例如：,A cart and horse was seen in the distance.,War and peace is always a topic in the world.,1.3.2,指代不一致,代词必须与它所指代的名词在人称、性、数、格方面保持一致。指代不明在学生作文中屡见不鲜，主要原因在于中、英文在代词的使用方面有所不同。,例如：,If anyone wants to leave the classroom,youd,better leave now.,。,这句话应改成：,If anyone wants to leave the classroom,he/shed,better leave now.,因为在英语里泛指任何人，必须用第三人称作代词。同理，,everyone,someone,somebody,nobody,等不定代词也要求用第三人称单数代词来指代。另外，指代不明往往容易造成误解：,例：,When I went into the classroom,I was told that,your,homework must be handed in right now.,（这句话应将“,your”,改成“,my”,）,以下是使用代词需要注意的几点：,1.,单数名词要用单数代词；复数名词用复数代词：,After reading his,novels,I found I was deeply moved by,them,.,2.,集体名词的代词由其意义而定：,The,team,took,their,pictures excitedly after the match.,3.,由“,and”,连接并列名词时，代词用复数形式：,Every morning,when,my sister and I,get up,we,always find our breakfast has been there.,4.,由“,eitheror”“neithernor”,等连接的单数名词用单数代词，复数名词用复数代词，若两名词一为单数，一为复数，代词与靠近的名词一致：,Either Jack or Tom,will lend you,his,book.,Either the employer or the employees,will win,their,victory.,5.,有些不定代词被看成单数，如：,everyone,anyone,no one,等；但有些不定代词既可以被看成是单数，又可以被看成是复数，这需由句子的意义来决定，如：,all,some,most,等。,All of the food has gone bad.,All her friends are music fans.,1.3.3,指代不明确,指代不明确是另一个比较常见的错误。指代不明会造成句子缺乏连贯性，容易引起读者误解。特别是中国学生写作时，经常先想好中文句子，然后再将其译成英语。写作者很清楚自己的思维过程，而读者却需要通过上、下文及句子中的指代关系理清条理，理解意思。因此，指代关系混乱会影响读者对句子的理解。,例如：,Anne told my sister that,she,really should buy that skirt yesterday.,这个句子意义不明确，是谁要买裙子？安还是姐姐？,When Mick met the professor at the beginning of the term,he,didnt know,he,would leave the college soon.,这句话中的主语部分有两个“,he”,，是指一个人还是两个人？如果是两个人又是指谁？,这两句话应通过下列方法加以修改：,1.,改变句子结构：,Anne told my sister“I really should buy that skirt yesterday.”,或,Anne said to my sister“You really should buy that skirt yesterday.”,2.,通过重复名词的方法：,When Mick met the professor at the beginning of the term,he didnt know,the professor,would leave the college soon.,除指代不明外，还有一种人们通常所说的“暗指代”，即代词实际上指的是句子中没有出现的一层意思或一个名词。,例如：,In the company,they,can retire at an early age.,句中“,they”,指的是谁？由于没有名词做“,they”,的“先行词”，还是很难判断。为了避免暗指代，此句可以改成：,People in the company can retire at an early age.,很多学生经常在写作时乱用“,it”,，认为“,it”,可以指任何事。其实“,it”,必须有所指，否则容易混淆。,例如：,I got very confused and asked her to write,it,out.,如果上文未表明“,it”,所指，那么这个句子就要改成：,I got very confused and asked her to write out what she said.,1.3.4,修饰语位置不正确,修饰语的位置常常决定句子的确切含义。如果修饰语位置不正确，句子就可能含混不清，不合乎逻辑。要避免这种错误，写作时最好让修饰语尽量靠近所修饰的词。试比较下列句子，注意句子意思怎样随着修饰词的变化而变化：,Just,he suggested that we go home early.,He,just,suggested that we go home early.,He suggested,just,that we go home early.,He suggested that,just,we go home early.,He suggested that we,just,go home early.,从上面的例子可以看出，副词“,just”,都是修饰它后面最靠近的一个词或句子。除了“,just”,以外，还有“,only”,“nearly”,“almost”,等副词的用法也相同。如果位置不当，就会容易引起歧义。,例如：,On New Years Eve,he,nearly,ate 50 dumplings.,这是一句典型的中国式英语，,nearly,实际上是修饰数词“,50”,的，故英语则要说：,On New Years Eve,he ate,nearly,50 dumplings.,在使用主从复合句时，更要注意修饰成分靠近所修饰成分。比较下面两个句子：,She explained why we had to take part in the meeting,on Sunday.,On Sunday,she explained why we had to take part in the meeting.,显然，修饰语位置的变化引起了句子意思的变化。,再比如：,Workers who work hard often get more money.,究竟“,often”,是修饰前面的“,work hard”,，还是后面的“,get”,，我们无法判断。为了避免这种歧义现象，应将此句写成：,Workers who often work hard get more money.,Workers who work hard get more money often.,1.3.5,悬垂修饰,悬垂修饰是指三种非谓语动词,分词,、,动名词和不定式短语在句子中作状语时，它们的逻辑主语和主句主语应同为一人或一物。如果出现不一致（分词独立结构除外），非谓语动词短语和谓语动词之间的修饰关系出现断裂，失去修饰对象而呈游离或悬垂状态。,例如：,Walking into the room,his steps woke me up.,要纠正悬垂修饰，需将主句主语同非谓语动词的逻辑主语一致起来。这样，上面的句子可改成：,Walking into the room,he woke me up with steps.,或改成：,When he walked into the room,his steps woke me up.,容易出现悬垂错误的成分有四种：悬垂分词；悬垂动名词；悬垂不定式；悬垂省略句。,纠正上述错误的方法：,将主句主语换成非谓语动词短语暗含的逻辑主语；或将非谓语动词暗含的逻辑主语写出来；如果非谓语动词暗含的逻辑主语是被动句结构中介词“,by”,的宾语，则应将被动句改为主动句，使句子主语和非谓语动词的逻辑主语一致起来。,下列各句均有悬垂修饰错误：,1.On entering the room,the door closed with a bang.,2.To save time,the railway lines were crossed by many people,3.When only several years old,my parents took me to an English class.,4.Burned to the ground,they had to build a new house.,如上所述，只要给上面各句中的非谓语动词短语加上逻辑主语，句子就能成立。上面各句可改成：,1.On entering the room,he closed the door with a bang.,2.To save time,many people crossed the railway lines.,3.When I was only several years old,my parents took me to an English class.,4.Since their old house was burned to the ground,they had to build a new house.,1.3.6,结构不对称,结构对称是指两个或两个以上同等成分在句中应起到同样的语法作用。对称结构可以使表达更突出、更清楚，否则句子会显得别扭，不通顺。也有人将这种不对称称为结构不平行。例如：,（误）,My sister is bright,pretty and a person,who,has consideration for others.,（正）,My sister is bright,pretty and considerate.,如果不能使用并列形容词，可以将修饰成分变成并列从句。例：,（误）,Bob,clever and hard-working,and who is my best friend,has been elected monitor of my class.,（正）,Bob,who,is clever and hard-working and,who,is my best friend,has been elected monitor of my class.,另外，为使句子清楚，逻辑关系明确，请不要将句子中保持结构平行的词省略掉。例如：,（误）,Tom worked hard and earned much money just for his family,his friends,but not himself.,（正）,Tom worked hard and earned much money just,for,his family,for,his friends,but not,for,himself.,如果这个平行结构的两个部分使用不同的时态或数，则要将两个结构都写出来，不能省略。例如：,（误）,China has never and will never be a superpower.,（正）,China has never,been,and will never,be,a superpower.,再有，连接各平行成分的词的词性应保持一致。例：,（误）,I wonder whether I should call her or to visit her at her convenience.,（正）,I wonder whether to call her or to visit her at her convenience.,（正）,I wonder whether I should call her or I should visit her at her convenience.,1.3.7,残缺句（不完整句子）,这类错误属于复合句中从句使用方面的错误，在学生的作文里特别常见。例如：,（误）,Before I finished my homework.I had to see her.,（正）,Before I finished my homework,I had to see her.,（误）,I wont leave your home.Until I see your father.,（正）,I wont leave your home until I see your father.,.,（误）,I didnt go to see the film last night.Because I had no money to buy the ticket.,（正）,I didnt go to see the film last night because I had no money to buy the ticket.,（误）,He sat down to watch the TV program.Not expecting anything special to happen.,（分词残缺句）,（正）,Not expecting anything special to happen,he sat down to watch the TV program.,（正）,We sat down to watch the TV program.We didnt expect anything special to happen.,（误）,At the restaurant,Tom used chopsticks.To impress other guests.,（不定式残缺句）,（正）,At the restaurant,Tom used chopsticks to impress other guests.,（误）,Every day I like eating some fruit.Such as apples,oranges,and pears.,（补充细节残缺句）,（正）,Every day I like eating some fruit such as apples,oranges,and pears.,（误）,Mary getting wedding presents but hated writing thank-you notes.,（缺少谓语）,（正）,Mary loved getting wedding presents but hated writing thank-you notes.,1.3.8,溶合句（不间断句子）,溶合句是将两个表达完整思想的句子错误地用逗号隔开，或不用标点符号而将两个句子写在一起。例如：,（误）,Tom told everyone in the room to be quiet,his telephone call was ringing.,（误）,Tom told everyone in the room to be quiet his telephone call was ringing.,此类错误可以用下列方法加以改正：,（正）,Tom told everyone in the room to be quiet.His telephone call was ringing.,（正）,Tom told everyone in the room to be quiet,for his telephone call was ringing.,（正）,Tom told everyone in the room to be quiet;his telephone call was ringing.,再比如：,（误）,Xiao Wang is a serious person,his brother is more serious than he.,（正）,Xiao Wang is a serious person,but his brother is more serious than he.,（正）,Xiao Wang is a serious person.His brother is more serious than he.,（正）,Xiao Wang is a serious person;his brother is more serious than he.,（正）,Although Xiao Wang is a serious person,his brother is more serious than he.,1.3.9,时态或语态不一致,时态或语态不一致也是许多学生常犯的错误。例如：,（误）,He knows some French,but didnt know any German.,（正）,He knows some French,but doesnt know any German.,或变为：,He knew some French,but didnt know any German.,（误）,I dont want to do it any more for I had done it already.,（正）,I dont want to do it any more for I have done it already.,（误）,I have finished my work two days ago.,（正）,I finished my work two days