语言学词素展示.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,*,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,Morphology,1.Morpheme,What is a morpheme,？,It is the minimal meaningful unit of language.Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.,语素是最小的有意义的单位。它是语言中最小的构词单位,2.Morph and allomorph,The definition of morphs,：,The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed morphs.,语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素。,Morphs are actual spoken,minimal carriers of meaning.,形素是口语中最小的意义载体。,3.,Classifications of morphemes,Free vs.bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring alone,Derivational vs.inflectional,morphemesapplying to affixes only,Content/lexical vs.grammatical morpheme on a semantic and syntactic basis,Free vs.bound morphemes,自由语素与粘着语素,Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free.Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.,自由语素是能独立运用的语素，它有完整的意义，在句中充当一个自由的语法单位。,E.g.,man,wind,open,tour,Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.They are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.,粘着语素不能独立成词，只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能。,Derivational morphemes,are used to derive new words when they are added to another morpheme.In English derivatives,and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.,派生语素附着于其它语素可派生出新词。英语中派生词和合成词都是由这样的语素构成的。,Inflectional morphemes,indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.,屈折语素作为语法标记表示词的语法意义，屈折语素只限于词缀。,Content/lexical vs.grammatical morphemes,Lexical,词汇,/content,实义,morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words(,blackbird,is coined on the basis of 2 lexical morphemes:,black and bird,.),and derivational morphemes such as,ship,-,ize,.,Grammatical morphemes function primarily as grammatical markers.They encompass both inflectional affixes(-books)and free morphemes(in,and,do,have,theyfunctional words),3.5 Morpheme and Word-formation,In word-formation,morphemes are labeled,root,stem,base and affix,.,在构词法中,语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。,Affix,Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.All affixes are bound morphemes.,词缀都是粘着语素，依附在词根上构成新词或表示词的语法意义。,Two types of affixes:Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes,屈折词缀和派生词缀,Inflectional affixes(or inflectional morphemes)serve to indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.,表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。,They express the following meanings,:,Plurality,名词复数,The genitive case,名词所有格,The comparative and superlative degrees,形容词,/,副词比较级、最高级,The verbal endings,动词词尾变化,e.g.-s in chairs,pens,;,-,es,in boxes,tomatoes;,-en in oxen,e.g.s in boys,childrens,e.g.-,er,in words like smaller;-,est,in words like smallest.,a.-(e)s in words like eats,teaches shows the third person singular present tense.,b.-,ing,in words like eating,shows the present participle or gerund.,c.-(e)d in words like worked shows the past tense or past participle.,Derivational affixes or derivational morphemes,They can be further divided into,prefixes and suffixes.,(1)Prefixes are affixes before the root,.,e.g.,，,un,just,re,write.,As a rule,most prefixes modify,the meaning of roots,but not their parts of speech.,(2)Suffixes are affixes after the root,By the addition of the suffix,the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another,e.g.liberat,ion,modern,ize,.,Root,stem,base,词根、词干、词基,A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.,词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。,A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.,词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。,A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind(both derivational and inflectional)can be added.It can be a root or a stem.,词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。,词根、词干、词基,词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。,词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。,词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。,它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。,4.1 Affixation/derivation,Affixation falls into two categories:,prefixation,and,suffixation,and the differences between them are just the differences between prefixes and suffixes.,Classification of prefixes,The major prefixes can be classified into 10 categories by their meaning.,Negative Prefixes,否定前缀,Reversative,or privative prefixes,逆反前缀,Pejorative prefixes,贬义前缀,Prefixes of degree or size,表范围和程度的前缀,Prefixes of orientation and attitude,表方向和态度的前缀,Locative prefixes,方位前缀,Prefixes of time and order,表时间和顺序的前缀,Number prefixes,数字前缀,Conversion prefixes,转化前缀,Miscellaneous prefixes,其他类型的前缀,1.Negative prefixes,prefixes,meaning,examples,un-,not,the converse,of,unwise,non-,nonessential,dis-,dishonest,in-,informal,im-,immature,il-,illegal,ir-,irregular,2.Reversative prefixes,prefixes,meaning,examples,un-,reversing,the,action,unpack,de-,decode,dis-,disconnect,3.Pejorative prefixes,prefixes,meaning,examples,mis-,wrongly,mishear,mal-,bad,malformed,pseudo-,false,pseudoscience,4.Prefixes of degree or size,prefixes,meaning,examples,arch-,supreme,archbishop,super-,more than,supermarket,out-,surpassing,outlive,sur-,over,surcharge,sub-,below,subnormal,over-,excessive,overconfident,under-,too little,underhand,hyper-,extreme,hypercritical,ultra-,extreme,ultrafashionable,mini-,little,miniskirt,5.Prefixes of attitude,prefixes,meaning,examples,co-,with,cooperate,counter-,against,counterattack,anti-,against,anti-clockwise,pro-,for,pro-Chinese,6.locative prefixes,prefixes,meaning,examples,sub-,under,subway,inter-,between,among,international,trans-,across,from one place to another,transplant,fore-,front,forename,7.Prefixes of time and order,prefixes,meaning,examples,fore-,before,foresee,pre-,in advance,preschool,post-,after,postindustrial,ex-,former,ex-president,re-,again,resell,8.Number prefixes,prefixes,meaning,examples,semi-,demi-,hemi-,half,semi-feudal,demi-circle,hemisphere,uni-,mono-,one,uniform,monotone,bi-,di-,two,bilingual,dioxide,tri-,three,triangle,quadr(i)-,tetra-,four,quadrennial,tetrapetalous,8.Number prefixes,prefixes,meaning,examples,quinqu-,penta-,five,quinquagenarian,pentagon,hexa-,sex-,six,hexahedron,sexcentenary,sept-,hepta-,seven,septangle,heptad,octa-,eight,octad,ennea-,nine,ennead,Before nouns and adjectives to form transitive verbs,befriend(to behave as a friend to),becloud(to cover with clouds,使遮暗,蒙蔽,),benumb(To make numb,especially by cold;To make inactive;dull:,使失去知觉：使失去活力；使迟钝,belittle,becalm(To make calm or still;soothe.,使平静：成为安静的或静止的；使镇静,),With nouns plus ed to yield adjectives,bespectacled(Wearing eyeglasses),Benighted(Overtaken by night or darkness,陷入黑暗,;Being in a state of moral or intellectual darkness;unenlightened.,蒙昧的：处于道德或智力的愚昧状态的；未启蒙的,),en-(em before p,b,m),Before nouns or adjectives to create transitive verbs,.,使成为,使处于,状态,Before nouns,enslave(cause to be);,empower(v.,授权）,embody(v.,体现）,endanger(V.,使处于危险之中,),Before adjectives to form verbs,enable,enrich,enlarge,endear,使受喜爱,ensure,担保,9.Conversion prefixes,prefixes,examples,a-,astride,be-,becalm,en-,enlarge,em-,empower,2.Suffixation,Question:,Why is the classification of suffixes different from the classification of prefixes?,Prefixes primarily function as a semantic modification of the base,while suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function are to change the grammatical function of the base.,Prefixes are classified on a semantic basis and suffixes on a grammatical basis,Types of suffixes,Noun suffixes,Adjective suffixes,Verb suffixes,Adverbs suffixes,Noun suffixes,De-nominal noun,suffixes,De-verbal noun,suffixes,De-adjective noun,suffixes,Noun and adjective,suffixes,1.1 Noun suffixes,suffixes,meaning,examples,-ster,person engaged in an occupation or activity,gamester,-eer,mountaineer,-er(or),driver,-ant,inhabitant,-let,small,unimportant,booklet,-ette,small;imitation;female,cigarette,leatherette,usherette,-ess,female,hostess,1.1 Noun suffixes,suffixes,meaning,examples,-hood,status,childhood,-ship,condition,dictatorship,-dom,realm,officialdom,-ing,state,bathing,-ful,amount,handful,-tion,state,oppression,Adjective Suffixes,suffixes,meaning,examples,-ful,full of,hopeful,-less,without,meaningless,-ly,having the quality of,friendly,-like,like,childlike,-y,somewhat like,silky,Adjective Suffixes,suffixes,meaning,examples,-ish,somewhat like,foolish,-some,causing,troublesome,-able,capable,changeable,-ed,having,moneyed,-al,typical of,regional,Adjective Suffixes,suffixes,meaning,examples,-ary(ory),connected with,imaginary,-esque,like,picturesque,-ous,full of,malicious,-ic,typical of,dramatic,-ive,having the quality of,attractive,Adverb Suffixes,suffixes,meaning,examples,-ly,in a manner,attentively,-ward,direction of movement,homeward,-fold,times,hundredfold,-wise,in the manner of,as far asis concerned,crabwise,weatherwise,4.2 Compounding,复合法,The definition,of compounding and compound,Characteristics of compounds,Phonological features,Semantic features,Grammatical features,Orthographical features,4.2 Compounding,复合法,3.Formation of Compounds,Noun compounds,Adjective compounds,Verb compounds,Through conversion:nickname;first-name,Through backformation:lip-reading to lip-read,chain-smoker to chain-smoke,4.3 Conversion,转化法,Question:,What is conversion?Why is it called zero-derivation?,change of word-class;functional shift,derivation process without the addition of an affix,Types of Conversion,Conversion to Nouns,Conversion to Verbs,Conversion to Adjectives,Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns,adjectives and verbs,among which the conversion between nouns and verbs are the most productive.,4.3.1 Conversion to nouns,De-verbal,De-adjectival,Miscellaneous conversion,1)Deverbal,（由动词转化而来的名词）,Almost all,monomorphemic(,单语素结构的,)verbs,can be used as nouns,，,which are semantically related to the original verbs in various ways.,State(of mind or sensation)(doubt;want;desire),Event or activity(search;laugh;teach-in),Result of the action(catch;find,answer),Doer of the action(help;cheat,bore),Tool or instrument to do the action with(cover;wrap),Place of the action(pass;walk;divide),2,)De-adjectival,由形容词转化成的名词,Full conversion,完全转换,:,A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns.,It can take an indefinite article or(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.,Partial conversion,部分转换,Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does.,They must be used together with definite articles as nouns while retaining some of the adjective features.,The gradable adjectives can keep their comparative or superlative degrees.,Words in this category generally denote a group of the kind.,3).Miscellaneous conversion,其他类型的转换,Nouns converted from other classes as conjunctions,modals,finite verbs,prepositions,etc.,Conversion to verbs,The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.,Three kinds of conversion to verbs,Denominal,:,to,pocket,the money;the,nurse,the baby,De-adjectival:,The photograph,yellowed,with age.,Miscellaneous conversion:,The students tut-tut the idea.,Conversion to adjectives,It occurs mostly between nouns and adjectives.,Less productive Word-formation,Blending,Clipping,Acronymy,Backformation,Sound reduplication,Commonization,of proper names,4.4 Blending,拼缀法,Definition,Classification,Features of blends,smog,（,smo,ke +f,og,）,fog intensified by smoke,sci-fi,(,sci,ence+,fi,ction),of,relating to,or being science fiction,airtel,(,air,+ho,tel,),hotel situated at or close to an airport,medicare,(,medi,cal+,care,),a government program of medical care,esp.for the aged,skylab,(sky,+,lab,oratory),United States space station;in orbit from 1973 to 1979,Five,types of blending according to their morphological structures,Head+tail:,The first part of the first word+the last part of the second one:,Head +head,:the first part of the first word+the first part of the second one,Head +word:,the first part of the first word+whole form of the second one,Word+tail:,whole form of the first word+the last part of the second one,Word+head,:whole,form of the first word+first part of the second one,Features of Blends,The overwhelming majority of blends are,nouns,very few are,verbs,and,adjectives,are even fewer.,The relation of the components of a blend can be classified into two kinds:the two parts may enjoy equal status and can be connected by“and”as in“brunch”or one component is the modificator of the other as in“psywar”.,particularly common in,commercial and journalistic,language(newspapers and magazines)and in writing related to,science and technology,4.5 Clipping,截短法,Definition,Reasons for using clipping,Types of clipping,Characteristics of clippings,Front clipping,Back clipping,Front and back clipping,Phrase clipping,Types of clipping,Front clipping,首部截短,The deletion occurs at the beginning of the word.,quake (earth,quake,),copter(heli,copter,),bus(omni,bus,),phone(tele,phone,),Back clipping,词尾截短,The deletion occurs at the end of the word.,ad(,ad,vertisement),lib(,lib,eration),自由党,prof(,prof,essor),dorm(,dorm,itory),lab(,lab,oratory),memo(,memo,randum),Front and back clipping,首尾部截短,flu(in,flu,enza),tec(de,tec,tive),fridge(refrigerator),jams(pajamas),Clipping may give rise to alterations in spelling and pronunciation.,bike(bicycle),mike(microphone),coke(Coca cola),pram(perambulator),This change in form and sound is possibly due to the informality typical of clipped forms.,For convenience and casualness in speech,people often omit one or two syllables from a word;and then when it is written down,a new spelling form is coined to suit the oral form.,Phrase clipping,短语截短,This involves the shortening of a phrase.,pop(,pop,ular music),pub(,pub,lic house),perm(,perm,anent waves),zoo(,zoo,logical garden),Gents(,Gent,lemens Room),Features of clippings,Clippings may give rise to alterations in spelling and pronunciation.,Clippings may vary with social classes,groups or occupations,certain locutions are peculiar to their own groups.,The sportsman has,ref,(=referee).The schoolgirl has her,hols,(=holidays)and,prep,(=preparation of school work).But the college students has his,exam,prof,math,lab,trig,and,gym,.,Features of clippings,A few of the clipped words like,taxi,plane,bus,are now accepted in the common core vocabulary of the English language.They have replaced their originals and some people are no longer aware that,bus,was clipped from,omnibus,and,taxi,from,taxicab,.,Stylistically speaking,clipped words are generally used in,less formal situations,than their full-length equivalents.Most of them are regarded to be,informal and colloquial,.But there are still some cases in which the original forms are regarded as bookish and people prefer the clipped words.,e.g,lunch(luncheon),4.6 Acronymy,首字母缩略法,Definition,Two types of acronyms depending on the pronunciation of the words,initialisms,首字母缩略词,Definition,classification,acronyms,首字母拼音词,Definition,classification,Initialisms,首字母缩略词,Definition,-,Initialisms are words formed by acronymy and