中英双语-Man-of-Wisdom.doc

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Man of Wisdom
Starting about one million years ago, the fossil record shows an accelerating growth of the human brain. It expanded at first at the rate of one cubic inch of additional gray matter every hundred thousand years; then the growth rate doubled; it doubled again; and finally it doubled once more. Five hundred thousand years ago the rate of growth hit its peak. At that time the brain was expanding at a phenomenal rate of ten cubic inches every hundred thousand years. No other organ in the history of life is known to have grown as fast as this.

What pressures generated the explosive growth of the human brain? A change of climate that set in about two million years ago may supply part of the answer. At that time the world began its descent into a great Ice Age, the first to afflict the planet in hundreds of millions of years. The trend toward colder weather set in slowly at first, but after a million years patches of ice began to form in the north. The ice patches thickened into glaciers as more snow fell, and then the glaciers merged into great sheets of ice, as much as two miles thick. When the ice sheets reached their maximum extent, they covered two-thirds of the North American continent, all of Britain and a large part of Europe. Many mountain ranges were buried entirely. So much water was locked up on the land in the form of ice that the level of the earth’s oceans dropped by three hundred feet.

Those events coincided precisely with the period of most rapid expansion of the human brain. Is the coincidence significant, or is it happenstance?

The story of human migrations in the last million years provides a clue to the answer. At the beginning of the Ice Age Homo lived near the equator, where the climate was mild and pleasant. Later he moved northward. From his birthplace in Africa he migrated up across the Arabian Peninsula and then turned to the north and west into Europe, as well as eastward into Asia.

When these early migrations took place, the ice was still confined to the lands in the far north; but eight hundred thousand years ago, when man was already established in the temperate latitudes, the ice moved southward until it covered large parts of Europe and Asia. Now, for the first time, men encountered the bone-chilling blasts of freezing winds that blew off the cakes of ice to the north. The climate in southern Europe had a Siberian harshness then, and summers were nearly as cold as Europe.
In those difficult times, the traits of resourcefulness and ingenuity must have been of premium value. Which individual first thought of stripping the pelt from the slaughtered beast to wrap around his shivering limbs? Only by such inventive flights of the imagination could the naked animal survive a harsh climate. In every generation, the individuals endowed with the attributes of strength, courage, and improvisation were the ones more likely to survive the rigors of the Ice Age: those who were less resourceful, and lacked the vision of their fellows, fell victims to the climate and their numbers were reduced.

The Ice Age winter was the most devastating challenge that Homo had ever faced. He was naked and defenseless against the cold, as the little mammals had been defenseless against the dinosaurs one hundred million years ago. Vulnerable to the pressures of a hostile world, both animals were forced to live by their wits; and both become, in their time, the brainiest animals of the day.

The tool-making industry of early man also stimulated the growth of the brain. The possession of a good brain had been one of the factors that enabled Homo to make tools at the start. But the use of tools became, in turn, a driving force toward the evolution of an even better brain. The characteristics of good memory, foresight, and innovativeness that were needed for tool making varied in strength from one individual to another. Those who possessed them in the greatest degree were the practical heroes of their day; they were likely to survive and prosper, while the individuals who lacked them were more likely to succumb to the pressures of the environment. Again these circumstances pruned the human stock, expanding the centers of the brain in which past experiences were recorded, future actions were contemplated, and new ideas were conceived. As a result, from generation to generation the brain grew larger.

The evolution of speech may have been the most important factor of all. When early man mastered the loom of language his progress accelerated dramatically. Through the spoken word a new invention in tool-making, for example, could be communicated to everyone; in this way the innovativeness of the individual enhanced survival prospects of his fellows, and the creative strength of one became the strength of all. More important, through language the ideas of one generation could be passed on to the next, so that each generation inherited not only the genes of its ancestors but also their collective wisdom, transmitted through the magic of speech.

A million years ago, when this magic was not yet perfected, and language was a cruder art, those bands of men who possessed the new gift in the highest degree were strongly favored in the struggle for existence. But the fabric of speech is woven out of many threads. The physical attributes of a voice box, lips, and tongue were among the necessary traits; but a good brain was also essential, to frame an abstract thought or represent an object by a word.

Now the law of the survival of the fittest began to work on the population of early men. Steadily, the physical apparatus for speech improved. At the same time, the centers of the brain devoted to speech grew in size and complexity, and in the course of many generations the whole brain grew with them. Once more, as with the use of tools, reciprocal forces came into play in which speech stimulated better brains, and brains improved the art of speech, and the curve of brain growth spiraled upward.

Which factor played the most important role in the evolution of human intelligence? Was it the pressure of the Ice Age climate? Or tools? Or language? No one can tell; all worked together, through Darwin’s law of natural selection, to produce the dramatic increase in the size of the brain that has been recorded in the fossil record in the last million years. The brain reached its present size about one hundred thousand years ago, and its growth ceased. Man’s body had been shaped into its modern form several hundred thousand years before that. Now brain and body were complete. Together they made a new and marvelous creature, charged with power, intelligence, and creative energy. His wits had been honed by the fight against hunger, cold, and the natural enemy; his form had been molded in the crucible of adversity. In the annals of anthropology his arrival is celebrated by a change in name, from Homo erectus — the Man who stands erect — to Homo sapiens — the Man of wisdom.

The story of man’s creation nears an end. In the beginning there was light; then a dark cloud appeared, and made the sun and earth. The earth grew warmer; its body exhaled moisture and gases; water collected on the surface; soon the first molecules struggled across the threshold of life. Some survived; others perished; and the law of Darwin5 began its work. The pressures of the environment acted ceaselessly, and the forms of life improved.
The changes were imperceptible from one generation to the next. No creature was aware of its role in the larger drama; all felt only the pleasure and pain of existence; and life and death were devoid of a greater meaning.
But to the human observer, looking back on the history of life from the perspective of many eons, a meaning becomes evident. He sees that through the struggle against the forces of adversity, each generation molds the shapes of its descendants. Adversity and struggle lie at the root of evolutionary progress. Without adversity there is no pressure; without pressure there is no change.
智人的产生
化石研究表明，从大约一百万年前起，人类的大脑开始加速生长。起初，大脑容量以每十万年增加一立方英寸灰质的速度进行扩充。后来，其增长速度扩大了一倍；之后再次翻番；最终，人类大脑的生长速度比初始加快了八倍之多，并于五十万年前达到顶峰。当时，人类大脑容量每十万年能够增加十立方英寸，其增速之快，在生命史上没有任何其它器官可以企及。
是什么原因造成了人类大脑的急速生长？距今约二百万年前，地球气候产生巨变，我们或许可以从这方面探索答案。那时，地球开始步入大冰河时期。那是亿万年来首次侵袭地球的冰期。起始，气温下降的趋势还较为缓慢，但在一百万年后，北半球已经开始出现大量冰块。随着降雪，冰块加厚变成冰川，冰川聚集又形成巨大的冰原，其厚度可达两英里。冰原面积最大时可覆盖北美大陆三分之二的地区、整个不列颠群岛以及欧洲大部分地区。许多山脉被完全掩埋于冰原之下。大量海水结成了冰，贮藏在陆地上，使地球海平面下降了三百英尺之多。
在这一切发生的同时，人类大脑的生长速度也恰恰处于巅峰状态。两者之间是否有着意义重大的关系，还是纯属巧合？
对最近一百万年来人类迁徙情况的研究，或许可以为解答该问题提供线索。冰河时期伊始，人类生活在赤道附近，那里气候温和，适宜生存。后来，他们开始北迁，从位于非洲的诞生地向北行进，横穿阿拉伯半岛，之后或转向西北，迁入欧洲，或一路向东进入亚洲。
人类进行早期迁徙时，冰川的范围还限制在极北地区。距今八十万年前，人类已在温带地区定居下来。然而冰川却开始向南推进，直到将亚欧大陆大部分地区掩埋于冰原之下。那时，人类第一次感到刺骨的寒冷，寒风夹杂着冰块从北方吹来。南欧地区的气候像西伯利亚一样严酷，那里的盛夏堪比欧洲当今的隆冬。
在那个艰难的年代，拥有机智灵敏、善于创造的头脑成为人们赖以生存的保证。是谁首先想出主意，从被宰杀的野兽身上剥下皮毛，包裹住自己瑟瑟发抖的肢体？对于赤身裸体的动物来说，没有这种富于创造的想象力，就无法在如此严酷的气候条件下生存。一代又一代的人类当中，只有集力量、勇气和创造力于一身的个体才能克服冰河时期的严峻考验。而那些不够机智，缺乏远见的人只能沦为恶劣气候的牺牲品，其数量也大大减少。
冰河时期的冬天，是人类有史以来所要面对的最为严峻的挑战。赤身裸体的人类在极寒面前显得十分弱小，如同一亿年前，面对恐龙的攻击，毫无防御能力的小型哺乳动物一样。同样生活在危机四伏的世界里，两者都被迫运用机智以求生存。尽管身体脆弱，他们却成为了自己生存的年代里最聪明的动物。
早期人类开始制造工具，这也对大脑的成长起到了促进作用。人类能够学会制造工具的原因之一，就是拥有一颗聪明的大脑。而使用工具又反过来刺激人脑更好地进化。制造工具需要人们拥有好的记性、远见卓识和创新能力，这些能力因人而异。在当时，最能够掌握这些能力的人才是真正的英雄。他们最有可能生存下来，创造繁荣。而欠缺这些能力的人则更可能不堪环境的重压。逆境一再磨炼着人类的躯干，不断扩展着人类的大脑。过往的经历得以记载，未来的行动得以谋划，新颖的观点得以构思。就这样，历经世代演化，人类大脑不断长大。
语言的进化或许是最重要的因素。早期人类掌握了语言之后，其进化速度也大大加快。比如，通过口口相传，工具制造方面的最新发明可以传播给所有人。如此一来，个人的创新就拓展了同类的生存前景，个人的创造力也就变成了所有人的创造力。更为重要的是，前人的思想得以通过语言传播给下一代。就这样，每一代人传承的不再仅仅是前辈的基因，还有他们的集体智慧。这一切都是凭借魔法般的语言代代相传的。
一百万年前，这种魔法的魔力还不尽完美，语言还是一门未经雕琢的艺术。那些最具有这种崭新天赋的人能够在生存的奋斗中占尽先机。语言就像织锦，由多股线条编制而成。喉、唇和舌等生理器宫都是不可或缺的要素。但良好的脑力同样至关重要，能够帮我们构架抽象思维，运用词句描述事物。
至此，适者生存的法则开始作用于早期人类。与语言相关的身体器官稳步地进化着，大脑语言中枢的大小和复杂程度也在同步增长。历经无数代的演化，整个大脑也随之成长。正如使用工具时的情形一样，互动作用再次产生：语言刺激了大脑的优化，大脑又反过来又促进了语言艺术的发展，大脑进化的曲线就这样螺旋上升。
推动人类智慧进化的最重要的因素究竟是什么？是冰期严寒的压力？是工具？还是语言？没有人能够回答。这些因素依照达尔文的物竞天择法则协同发挥作用，引发了化石记载的过去百万年中人类脑量的剧增。大约十万年前，人类大脑就已发育到了现在的规模，不再继续增长。人的躯体在几十万年前也已经发育成了现在的样子。至此，大脑和躯体终于进化完成。它们共同造就了一个崭新而神奇的生灵，力量非凡，机智无比，善于创造，在与饥饿、寒冷和天敌的抗争中，他的智慧得以磨砺，他的身躯在苦难的熔炉中得以铸造。从直立人——Homo erectus——到智人——Homo sapiens, 人类学编年史用这样一个崭新的更名欢庆了他的驾临。
人类起源的故事已近尾声。起初，激光乍现，旋即阴云密布。而后，诞生了太阳和地球。地球缓缓变暖，其身躯呼出润泽和各种气体。水在地球表面上聚集。不久，最初的分子几经挣扎，跨越了生命的门槛。有些生存了下来，有些消失于无踪。达尔文的法则开始奏效，环境的压力延绵不绝，生命的形式不断演进。
世世代代之间，地球悄无声息的变化着。没有任何生灵能够意识到自己在这一幕大戏中所扮演的角色。它们所能真切感受到的只是生存的欢乐与痛楚。个体的生死存亡并无多大意义。
但对人类观察者而言，若放眼回望，从万代千秋的角度审视生命的历程，人生的意义便会真相大白。在与种种逆境的抗争中，每一代人都参与塑造了自己的后世子孙，逆境和抗争是人类进化的根源。没有逆境，何来压力；没有压力，何谈变革。
对个人而言，这些逆境太过痛苦，但它们却缔造了伟大的源流，承载着生命，由简及繁，稳步前行。最终，人类傲立于地球之上，完美无双。他们天资聪慧，具有自知之明。在一切生灵中，只有人类，才会发出这种充满好奇的天问：我何以存在？是什么力量造就了我？在科学知识的引导下，他终于醒悟：自己是所有先驱与逆境不懈抗争而成就的造物。
译者：刘政钺