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<p>Linguistics is a scientific study of language . 语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. 普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究
the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支
Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.. (语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究
Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交
流中形传达意义
.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语
Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学) 如何在组成语法上可接受的句子
Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义
跨学科分支
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. 社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. 心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究
Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. 应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究
Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学中一些基本区分
1. Descriptive or Prescriptive
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
2. Synchronic and Diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study。共时性对语言在历史的某一时间点的描述，历时性对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述
3. Speech and Writing.
4. Langue and Parole
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.瑞士语言学家索绪尔于20实际早期提出，语言是一个话语社团所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，言语是语言在实际运用中的实现。
5. Competenceand and Performance
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声). 语言能力定为理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识，语言运用在语言交流中的具体实现。
6Modern linguistics and traditional grammar现代语言学与传统语法
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. 语言学是描述性的而传统语法是规定。
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.现代语言学家认为口头语是最基本的，而不是书面语。
Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 现在语言学不同于传统语法还在于它不强行将语言放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是有任意性，用于人类交流的语音标志系统。
语言的本质特征
1 Language is a system,i.e,elements of language are combined according to certain rules. 语言是一个系统，即语言的元素相结合，按照一定的规则
2 Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. 语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。
3 Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. 语言是有声，因为所有语言的主要媒介都是声音
4 Language is human-specific,i.e.,it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. 语言是人类特有的，它与其他生物的交际系统不同
Design features of language 语言的结构，识别特征
Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 识别的特征指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征
1 arbitrariness ----It means that there is no logical convention between meaning and sounds. 任意性-意味意义和语言之间的没有什么逻辑的联系
2 productivity or Creativity ---language is productivity or creativity in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 能产性-语言是能产的或具有创造性的，它使得者可以建构或和解释的新的符号
3 duality --language is system,which consists of two sets of structures. 双重性-- 语言系统，它由两种结构组成套the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words the higher level ----words which are meaningful.
4Displacement---- Language can be use to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker。移位性-语言能够指远离说话人所在场合的情境
5 Cultural transmission while human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. 文化传承性--而人类的语言能力具有遗传的基础，任何语言系统的细节都要靠传教和学习。
Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages..语音学是对语言的媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中所有的语音
Three branches of phonetics语音学三个分支
Articulatory [ɑ:'tikjuleitəri] phonetics---发音语音学 （历史最悠久）
Auditory .['ɔ:ditəri] phonetics----听觉语音学
Acoustic [ə'ku:stik] phonetics---声学语音学
three important cavities Organs of speech三个重要区域发音器官
Pharyngeal [færindʒi:əl] cavity ---- the throat [θrəut];咽腔，喉咙
The oral cavity ---- the mouth;口腔，嘴巴
Nasal ['neɪzəl] cavity ---- the nose.鼻腔，鼻子
Lips, teeth, teeth ridge [ridʒ] (alveolus)齿龈, hard palate硬腭, soft palate (velum)软腭, uvula ['ju:vjulə]小舌, tip of tongue
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).国际音标
Orthographic {ɔ:θəɡræfik}representation of speech sounds语音的正字法表征
Broad transcription【træn'skrɪpʃə】-- the transcription with letter-symbols only 宽式标音是用代表字母的符号标音
Narrow transcription ---the transcription with diacritics.[,daiə'kritik]严式标音是用代表字母的符号和变音共同标音
Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. [,ʌnim'pi:did]清音是当声带完全张开，气流通过声带而不引起振动
Voicing/ voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration [vaɪ'breɪʃən] effect浊化是当气流在强行穿过的时候会使他们以不同的速度振动。
Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类
Vowels ['vaʊəl] and Consonants ['kɔnsənənt] 元音和辅音
Classification of consonants辅音的分类
---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions[di'menʃən]:1The manner of articulation 2 The place of articulation 英语中的辅音按两种标准划分：1发音方式 2发音部位
The manner of articulation
n stops/plosives: [p], , [t], [d], [k], [g];闭塞音
n fricatives ['frikətiv]: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h]; 摩擦音
n affricates ['æfrikit]: [tF], [dV]; 塞擦音
n liquids ['likwid]: [r];[l]流音
n nasals ['neɪzəl]: [m], [n], [N]; 鼻音
n glides[ɡlaid] : [w], [j].滑音
The place of articulation
n bilabial [bai'leibiəl]: [p],, [m], [w],[b]双唇音
n labiodental ['leibiəu'dentl]: [f], [v]; 唇齿音
n dental.[dentəl]: [W], [T];齿音
n alveolar [æl'viələ: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];齿龈音
n palatal ['pælətəl]: [F], [V], [tF], [dV], [ j]; 腭音
n velar ['vi:lə]: [k], [g], [N];软颚音
n glottal ['ɡlɔtl]: [h]. 喉音
Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类
1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back
2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open
3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded
4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)
n Monophthongs ['mɔnəufθɔŋ]or pure/single vowels元音
n Diphthongs['dɪf,θɔ:ŋ or gliding vowels双元音
front vowels central vowels back vowels
Close闭
Semi-close: 半闭
Semi-open:半开
n
Open:开
Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.
Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?
What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
Phonetics & phonology
Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme
Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marks
Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
Phone
n A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].
Phoneme
n A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].
Allophone
n Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
n Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g.
/b/ and /p/ in [ bIt ] and [pIt].
n Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.
dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].
Minimal pair
n Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.
beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.
Some rules of phonology
n Sequential rules
n Assimilation rule
n Deletion rule
Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.
If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.
a) the first phoneme must be /s/,
b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,
c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.
* [ N ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我， 俄语……”
Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:
n indiscreet alveolar [In]
n inconceivable velar [IN ]
n input bilabial [Im]
Assimilation in Mandarin
n 好啊 hao wa
n 海啊 hai ya
n 看啊 kan na
n 唱啊 chang Na
n 跳啊 tiao wa
……
Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.
Syllable (what is syllable?)
n Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.
n Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.
n The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [mAn].
n The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.
Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):
Stress: word stress and sentence stress
Word stress
n The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:
verb: im5port; in5crease; re5bel; re5cord …
noun: 5import; 5increase; 5rebel; 5record …
n Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:
compound: 5blackbird; 5greenhouse; 5hotdog…
noun phrase: black 5bird; green 5house; hot 5dog…
n The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:
modifier: 5dining-room; 5readingroom; 5sleepingbag…
doer: sleeping 5baby; swimming 5fish; flying 5plane…
n Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
n Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
He is driving my car.
My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.
Tone
n Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
n English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
ma 妈 (level)
ma 麻 (the second rise)
ma 马 (the third rise)
ma 骂 (the fourth fall)
Intonation
n When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
n English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:
n falling tone (matter of fact statement)
n rising tone (doubts or question)
n the fall-rise tone (implied message)
For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.”
Grammatical functions of intonations
----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.
a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.
b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”
Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.
With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.
Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:
“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”
c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.
Jac</p>
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