第十二章-Europe-and-the-world-1870-1914-.pptx

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,Edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,20/9/1,#,CHAPTER,12,Europe,and,the,world,1870-1914,EUROPEAN,ECONOMY,AND,THE,POLITICS,OF,MASS,SOCIETY,THE,WEST,AND,THE,WIDER,WORLD,THE,EUROPEAN,BALANCE,OF,POWER,1870-1914,THE,NEW,IMPERIALISM,EUROPEAN-DOMINATED,WORLD,i.,EUROPEAN,ECONOMY,AND,THE,POLITICS,OF,MASS,SOCIETY,Boom,and,bust,Cartels,Trade,unions,Parliamentary,reforms,Womens,rights,and,social,reform,Movements,for,the,vote,The,Jewish,question,and,zionism:,anti-Semitism,Europe,economy,Between 1871 and 1914 the scale of European life was radically altered.Industrial society had promoted largeness as the norm,as growing numbers of people worked under the same roof.Large-scale heavy industries fueled by new energy sources dominated the economic landscape.Great Britain,the leader of the first phase of the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century,slipped in prominence as an industrial power at the end of the nineteenth century,as Germany and the United States devised successful competitive strategies of investment,protection,and control.,Throughout,Europe,nation-states protected domestic industries by erecting tariff barriers against foreign goods.Only Great Britain among the major powers stood by a policy of free trade.Europe was split into two tiersthe haves and have-nots:those countries with a solid industrial core and those that had remained unindustrialized.This division had a geographic character,the north and west of Europe being heavily developed and capitalized and the southern and eastern parts of Europe remaining heavily agricultural.For both the haves and have-nots,tariff policies were an attractive form of regulation by the state to protect established industries and to nurture industries that were struggling for existence.,Parliamentary Reforms.,The,existence of the new Labour party pressured Conservatives and Liberals to develop more enlightened social programs.After 1906,under threat of losing votes to the Labour party,the Liberal party heeded the pressures for reform.The“new”Liberals supported legislation to strengthen the right of unions to picket peacefully.Led by David Lloyd George(18631945),who was chancellor of the exchequer,Liberals sponsored,the,National,Insurance Act of 1911.The act provided compulsory payments to workers for sickness and unemployment benefits.In order to gain approval to pay for this new legislation,Lloyd George recognized that Parliament itself had to be renovated.The Parliament Bill of 1911 reduced the House of Lords,dominated by Conservatives resistant to proposed welfare reforms,from its status as equal partner with the House of Commons.Commons could and now did raise taxes without the consent of the House of Lords to pay for new programs that benefited workers and the poor.,Womens Rights.,European,women who worked outside of the family were paid one-third to one-half of what men earned for the same work.In Great Britain,women did not enjoy equal divorce rights until the twentieth century.In France,married women had no control over their own incomes;all their earnings were considered their husbands private property.From the Atlantic to the Urals,women were excluded from economic and educational opportunities.,Growing numbers of women,primarily from the middle classes,began calling themselves“,feminist,”a term that was coined in France in the 1830s.The new feminists throughout western Europe differed from earlier generations in their willingness to organize mass movements and to appropriate the techniques of interest-group politics.The first international congress of womens rights,held in Paris in 1878,initiated an era of international cooperation,and,exchange,among womens organizations.Womens groups now positioned themselves for sustained political action,.,Womens demands for political power were the basis of an unheralded revolution in Western culture.In Great Britain,the decade before the Great War of 1914 was a period of profound political education for women seeking the vote.An unprecedented 250,000 women gathered in Hyde Park in 1908 to hear more about female suffrage.Laughed at by men,ridiculed in the press,and taunted in public demonstrations,women activists refused to be quiet and to know their place.,The Jewish Question and Zionism,Two,million eastern European Jews migrated,westward,between,1868 and 1914 in search of peace and refuge.Seventy thousand settled in Germany.Others continued westward,stopping in the United States.Another kind of Jewish migration took place in the nineteenth century:the movement within nations of Jews from rural to urban areas.In eastern Europe,Jewish migrations coincided with downturns in the economic cycle,and Jews became scapegoats for the high rates of unemployment and high prices that seemed to follow in their wake.Most migrants were peddlers,artisans,or small shopkeepers who were seen as threatening to small businesses.Differing in language,culture,and dress,they were viewed as alien in every way,.,citizens,of all religions enjoyed full equality.In France,Jews had been legally emancipated since the end of the eighteenth century.But the western and central European politics of the 1890s had a strong dose of anti-Semitism.Demagogues such as Georg von Schnerer(18421921)of Austria were capable of whipping up a frenzy of riots and violence against Jews.Western and central European anti-Semitism assumed a new level of virulence at the end of the nineteenth century.,II.,THE,WEST,AND,THE,WIDER,WORLD,African,art,and,European,Artists,Art,and,the,new,age,African Art and European Artists,The,limited definition of civilization held by the,Western,world,for more than a millennium began to broaden in the late nineteenth century.Anthropologists studying non-Western cultures argued that the social structure,habits,beliefs,and products of communities elsewhere in the world formerly dismissed as primitive or exotic were,in their own way,as complex and evolved as those based on European tradition.In the late nineteenth century,the world view of Europeans was expanded by two characteristic European institutions:world fairs and public museums.European countries and the United States hosted international exhibitions such as the London Great Exhibition of 1851 and the Chicago Columbian Exposition of 1893 that introduced art and cultural artifacts from all over the world to a mass public audience.,growing appreciation and understanding of the cultures of different continents.,For,example,European exposure to the art forms and costumes of the Far East changed European style and painting in the second half of the nineteenth century.The discovery of Japanese painting,wood-block prints,and calligraphy provided an important influence on the new direction of European impressionists and postimpressionists.Japanese design was incorporated into the work of such leading Western artists as Edgar Degas and James Whistler.,the artistic influence of Africa,No less important was the artistic influence of Africa,portrayed as the“dark continent”and the“white mans burden”by colonizing forces,on leading lights of the European art world.Pablo Picasso encountered African carvings for the first time as a young man in the ethno-graphic collections of the Trocadro Museum in Paris.The Spanish artist was so fascinated by the directness and strength of the African aesthetic that he was inspired to abandon all traces of traditional form in his work and seek a new means of expression.In one of his best known works from the early twentieth century,Les Desmoiselles dAvignon,(1907,France,Figure 1),Picasso used the formula of African masks to cover the faces of the two women on the right of the canvas.Mask-like features were incorporated into the faces of the three women to the left.The denial of natural appearance in these women is coupled with the denial of a similar Western art convention,the illusion of three-dimensional space.Picasso fragments the planes of the background and the planes of some of the bodies,breaking them into the jagged slabs that would become the hallmark of Cubism.Picasso knew little about the cultural significance of the African masks he so admired and collected;he saw them as emblems of primitivism,appropriate for the spirit of danger and mystery he wanted to convey in a portrait of Avignon prostitutes.He saw in African art the point of departure and the source of inspiration for a new and radical art in the West.,the,dynamic of cultural exchange,he dynamic of cultural exchange in the arts flowed in both directions.While leading European artists such as Picasso were forging new art forms by appropriating an African art aesthetic identified as primitive,African artists were borrowing and incorporating Western-inspired forms into their art.,Art and the New Age,In,the last quarter of the nineteenth century,the,world,of art in western Europe and the United States was characterized by new discoveries,new subjects,and new modes of expression.At least a half dozen major and distinct art movements caught the imagination of artists and the general public.Beginning in the 1860s,impressionist painters led the way in rebelling against the conventions of the formal painting of the academic salons.Choosing unlikely subjects such as railway stations and haystacks in the works of Claude Monet(18401926),impressionists made a revolution in capturing on canvas the nature of light and atmosphere.Post-impressionists in the 1880s and 1890s built on the insights of their impressionist colleagues but went in new and less predictable directions,as exemplified in the work of Paul Cezanne(18391906),Vincent Van Gogh(18531890),and Henri Rousseau(18441910).Pointillism,well exemplified in the work of Georges Seurat(18591891),also followed the discoveries of the impressionists by using tiny dots to convey light and a spectrum of color.,values and mores of a changing society,All the art of this period also had certain features in common.The artists reflected the values and mores of a changing society in their work,both in their choice of subject matter and their choice of perspective.They were also influenced by breakthroughs in science and technology that allowed the understanding of how light worked through the new realism of the photographic medium and new discoveries in physics and the science of the material world.New knowledge about non-Western cultures and Europeans widening view of the world also influenced artistic subjects and styles(see“The West and the Wider World:African Art and European Artists,”pp.190191).The new art movements of the late nineteenth century also indicated a dramatic shift in the class base of art out of the salons of the elite and the aristocracy and into the venues of middle class life the home,the public spheres of the caf,the theater,and the railway station.,the possession of colonial territories,Imperialism,The pace of change in society and culture,wasaccelerating,in the years leading up to,World,War I.By 1914,many Europeans felt threatened by all these changes and new ideas.Elitist politicians devised schemes to exploit new opportunities;intellectuals talked of the possibility,even the desirability,of new manipulative dictatorships;and idealist dreams of democracy collided with the realities of mass politics.As the press fanned flames of controversy,social unrest seemed likely.Even the notion of retreat to a tranquil home and hearth was threatened by angry feminist activists.Imperialism also reached its culmination in the years 1870 to 1914 as the more powerful Western countries vied with each other for the possession of colonial territories.,THE POLITICS OF MAPMAKING,Before,people knew how to write,they drew maps.Yet,in,1885,only one-ninth of the land surface of the earth had been surveyed.Within the next decade,however,centuries-old ignorance diminished as cartographers,surveyors,and compilers fanned out around the globe to,III.,THE,EUROPEAN,BALANCE,OF,POWER,1870-1914,Upsetting,the,European,balance,of,power,The,Ottoman,Empire,THE EUROPEAN BALANCE OF POWER,18701914,Geopolitics,or the politics of geography,is based on the recognition that certain areas of the world are valuable for political reasons.The term,first used at the end of the nineteenth century,described a process well under way in international relations.Between 1870 and 1914,European states were locked in a competition within Europe for dominance and control.Geopolitics combined with rising nationalist movements in southern Europe and the Ottoman Empire to create a mood of increasing confrontation among Europes great powers.The European balance of power that Bismarck had so carefully crafted began to disintegrate with his departure from office in 1890.By 1914,a Europe divided into two camps was no longer the sure guarantee of peace that it had been a generation earlier.,Upsetting the European Balance of Power,The,map of Europe had been redrawn in the,two,decades,after 1850.By 1871,Europe consisted of the Big FiveBritain,France,Germany,Austria-Hungary,and Russiaand a handful of lesser states.The declaration of the German Empire in 1871 and the emergence of Italy with Rome as its capital in 1870 unified numerous disparate states.Although not always corresponding to linguistic and cultural differences among Europes peoples,national boundaries appeared to be fixed,with no country aspiring to territorial expansion at the expense of its neighbors.But the creation of the two new national units of Germany and Italy had legitimized nationalist aspirations and the militarism necessary to enforce them.,The Three EmperorsLeague.,Under,the chancellorship of Otto von Bismarck,Germany led the way in forging a new alliance system based on the realistic assessment,of,power politics within Europe.In 1873,Bismarck joined together the three most conservative powers of the Big FiveGermany,Austria-Hungary,and Russiainto the Three Emperors League.Consultation about mutual interests and friendly neutrality were the cornerstones of this alliance.Identifying ones enemies and choosing ones friends in this new configuration of power came in large part to depend on geographic weaknesses.The Three Emperors League was one example of the geographic imperatives driving diplomacy.Bismarck was determined to banish the specter of a two-front war by isolating France on the Continent.,The Ottoman Empire.,Another,great decaying conglomeration was the Ottoman Empire,bridging Europe and Asia.Politically feeble and on the verge of bankruptcy,the Ottoman Empire with Turkey at its core comprised a vast array of ethnically,linguistically,and culturally diverse peoples.In the hundred years before 1914,increasing social unrest and nationalist bids for independence had plagued the Ottoman Empire.As was the case with the Habsburgs in Austria-Hungary,the Ottomans maintained power with increasing difficulty over these myriad ethnic groups struggling to be free.The Ottoman Empire,called“the sick m