英语写作段落的扩展PPT幻灯片课件.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,A Basic Course,in Writing,1,Developing Paragraphs,Chapter 4,2,What is a paragraph like?,A paragraph is a unit of thought;it is at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole,that is,the essay;it is like a mini-essay&therefore should be,unified,coherent,and,well-developed,.,A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic,.When the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic,he should begin a new paragraph.,A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally&smoothly,and one sentence leads logically to another,.,3,Length of Paragraphs,Paragraphs vary in length.Experienced writers usually try to vary the length of their paragraphs so as to avoid monotony.,The length of a paragraph depends on its,topic,its,position,in the essay,and its,role,in the development of the thesis statement,.,A long paragraph expresses a complex idea while a short one makes a major transition,an emphatic statement,or a summary.,4,Unity,:concerned with its,content,;all the sentences in the para.lead to one central theme which is usu.summarized in what is called the topic sentence.,Coherence,:concerned with its,form,or its,organization,;all the sentences should be arranged in a clear,logical order&the transitions should be smooth and natural.,Transitions,.,Qualities of Effective Paragraphs,5,Ways of Producing a Fluent Para.,Using parallel structures;,Repeating words or words groups;,Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding,sentences;,Being consistent in the person and number of,nouns and pronouns,and the tense of verbs;,Using transitional expressions,6,Fundamental Features of an Effective Paragraph,a central idea,supporting evidence,close connection between the sentences,7Friend-type parents treat their children as friends.They are generous and wise.Like good friends,they discuss with their children the latest news,share their children,s many interests,and listen to their expression of emotion,whether it is anger,fear,joy or sorrow.,Example 1,Topic Sentence:,the 1st sentence.,8,Example 2,I really had a bad day yesterday.When I went to do some washing,I fell off on the wet floor and broke my glasses.After I hurried downstairs to take my bike only to find I had left my keys on the bedroom on the 7,th,floor,.,Topic Sentence:,the 1st sentence.,9,Pollution exists everywhere.,People,throw away much rubbish everyday,and much of it is made of plastic.Some factories send out heavy smoke in the air,and much waste into rivers,and some factories produce loud noise which drive people mad.,Example 3,Topic Sentence:,the 1st sentence.,10,On the second floor,there are two toilets and two balconies,and each of the four kids has their own separate rooms on this floor.The Smiths often enjoy their meals in a big sitting room on the ground floor,and if the weather is fine,they might eat in the garden.Mr.Smith really has a big house.,Example 4,Topic Sentence:,the last sentence.,11,Sometimes,the topic of a para.is not stated but is implied in the content.,The wind picks up and begins to hurl itself through those deserted streets.Signboards sway violently from side to side,seeming almost to want to go with the wind that blows them.Trees complain as the strong wind tears at their branches,causing them to bend and bow down.With the wind comes the rain,stinging anyone unfortunate enough not yet to have reached the safety of home.,Topic:,the scene of a violent storm,12,Read the following paragraph and answer questions after it.,Using a spell checker on a computer can be a great advantage for a,writer.First,the writer can check the spelling of many of the words,in the paper.The spell checker tries to match the spelling of the,word with a word in its dictionary.Many spell checkers have at,least 100,000 words in their dictionaries.Second,the writer can ask,the spell checker to suggest a spelling.If the word is already spelled,correctly,the writer can ask the program to ignore the suggested,spelling.If the word is misspelled,the writer can request that the,program correct the error.Many writers rely on spell checkers to,improve the accuracy of their writing1.What is the topic of the paragraph?,2.Underline the topic sentence.,3.Identify the words or phrases used to connect the,sentences closely.,Topic:the spell checker.,Topic Sentence:,the 1st sentence.,13,Read the following paragraph and answer questions after it.,Some people see things only in black and white.In this,expression,black and white represent opposite extremes,with no,middle ground between them.Most issues in the world are not so,simple as black and white.One side of an issue is not all white,right or good and the other side is not all black wrong or,evil.In the real world there are many gray areas where black and,white mix to represent the true situation.,from,Words and Their Stories,VOA Special English,What is the topic of the paragraph?,Underline the topic sentence.,Identify the words or phrases used to connect the sentences closely.,Topic:,“,black and white,”,.,Topic Sentence:,the 1st sentence.,14,Planning a Paragraph,First,think of the topic or theme or main idea,and express it in a complete sentence.,Second,think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support the main idea.,Work out an outline to put these details in good order.,15,Ways of Developing a Paragraph,16,1.Development by Time,in chronological sequence=in order of time,按时间先后顺序,things are mentioned according to the time when they happened,the first thing first&the last thing last,the easiest&clearest way in telling a story or recounting an event,17,Analysis,Sample(1),Main idea:,Time expressions:,Sample(2),Main idea:,Time expressions:,history of the railroad,in the sixteenth century,by the early,nineteenth century,in 1825,that same year,soon,during the 1830s,by the early 1840s,the writer,s first day at a new school,as I mounted the stairs to my new,classroom,;,then,;,during the recess,;,soon,;,at the end of,the day,18,Expressions for Describing Chronological Relations,now,nowadays,when,before,after,while,during,between _and_,in _(year),since_,later,earlier,formerly,at the turn of the century(decade),in the first half of the century,in the 1990s,etc.,at birth,in childhood,in infancy,in adolescence,as an adult,in adulthood,in old age,at death,simultaneously,simultaneous with,at the same time as,the former,the latter,previous,previously,prior to,first,second,etc.;in the first place,in the second place,etc.,to begin with,next,then,subsequently,in the next place,in conclusion,finally,lastly,in the end,19,2.Development by Process,explain how sth.is done according to its right sequence so as to avoid mistakes or failures,usu.follow a chronological order and give a step-by-step description,imperative sentences&sentences with the indefinite pron.,you,as the subject are often used in giving instructions,use present tense if the instructions are still applicable,20,Sample 1,Analysis,The paragraph describes step by step what things should be done before moving house and the present tense is used.However,one thing needs to be noticed in this paragraph:though many things should be done before moving house,there seems to be no fix order in which one thing should bedone before another as long as they are all done.This is another way to develop a paragraph by process.There are only two transitional words in this paragraph:,Before,the men come to move the furniture,And,lastly,21,Sample 2,1.,Firstly,you should.get regular exercise.2.,Just before the exam,it helps to write short notes.3.,On the day of the exam,dont do any studying.,Can you find out those words and phrases that indicate,the time sequence in the paragraph?,22,Expressions for Writing Process Descriptions,occur,before,at this point,become,until,at the same time,happen,while,after,grow,as,first,secondly,lastly,take place,once,next,be carried out,then,change into,as soon as,23,3.Development by Space,First,choose a,vantage point,(,有利位置,),from which things are viewed.,Second,state clearly the,spatial relations,(,空间关系,),among the objects being described.,Third,concentrate on the best-known features of the place&ignores the minor ones.,Lastly,describe the place in present tense.,24,Sample 1:,Oxford,25,Analysis,This paragraph is a description of the old university town,Oxford.In this paragraph,the author obviously stands,at the center of Oxford,and describes what surrounds him.,26,Sample 2:,The Terrace Park,27,Analysis,The paragraph gives you a clear and orderly picture of a pretty park.Where do you think the author stands?He must be,by one side of the park,for that is where he starts his description.The most important feature of the park is the pitches,and other features are the trees,the river,the flowers and other sports facilities.The present tense is used in the description.,28,Expressions for Describing Spatial Relationships,where,in which,to which,from which,etc.under,over,inside,beside,on top of,etc.along,through,as far as,etc.north,northern,south,southern,etc.to the left,to the right,to the north,etc.at the back,in front,in the middle,etc.adjacent to parallel rectangle,corresponding to parallel to semicircle,distance perpendicular to slope,midpoint plane space,interior opposite surface,diagonal overlapping vertical,edge pyramid horizontal,limit exterior intersection,29,4.Development by Example,often used in explaining things,make writing vivid,convincing&memorable,make dry,abstract ideas or theories interesting,concrete&easy to understand,30,Analysis,The first two sentences of this paragraph seem to present,a rather mysterious theory.But when you read the example,you find it really interesting and may even start to believe,that there is some truth in it.Examples help to explain what,you want to say or prove.They make dry and abstract,theories easy to understand.,So when you write an explanatory paragraph,you should,always think of good examples to illustrate your views and,points.Using the phrase For example is a convenient way,to start.,Sample 1,31,Sample 2,Analysis,In this paragraph,the author develops the controlling sentence with a series of facts involving well-known people.These enable the writer to make abstract key idea,“,persistent investigation,”,concrete.They also add dramatic qualities that make the information interesting.We may notice that it is not always necessary to say,“,for example,”,or,“,for instance,”,when an example is,given.,32,Expressions for Giving Specific Details,for example as an illustration,for instance in one instance,for one thing in this instance,to illustrate as an example,in other words take _ for example,as follows consider _ for example,let me illustrate in practice,let me cite as proof according to statistics,according to statistical evidence,33,5.Development byComparison&Contrast,The method of comparison tends to focus on the similarities of the two objects being compared while the method of contrast emphasizes the differences between the two objects being contrasted.,There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison or contrast.One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other.In this way,the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the,same order,.This method is called,block comparison/contrast,.The other way is to examine two things at the same time,discussing them point by point.This method is called,alternating comparison/contrast,.,34,Analysis,As you read the paragraph,you find that the author first mentions the disadvantages of living in a big city.Four major problems are listed to illustrate the stress urban people have to live with daily.Then he begins to state the advantages of life in a country village by using the words,In contrast,.Four nice aspects of country life are mentioned,giving you a beautiful picture of the countryside.By contrast,you can immediately see the great differences between city life and country life.And,block contrast,is adopted here.,Sample 1,35,Analysis,Unlike Sample 1,this paragraph focuses on the similarities of the two objects being compared,jogging and Taiji.Neither of the two needs many facilities or help from others.But for a wide range of people,both are very effective for keeping fit,and,therefore,very popular.And obviously,this paragraph is also developed by,block comparison,.,Sample 2,36,Expressions for Making Comparison and Contrast,To Compare:,similar to,at the same rate as,similarly,as,like,alike,just as,likewise,in like manner,correspond to,in the same way,correspondingly,to have _,in common,resemble,common,characteristics,etc.,resemblance,to be parallel in _,almost,the same as,both,To Contrast:,differ from,unlike,however,in contrast to,still,in,opposition to,nevertheless,on,the contrary,otherwise,on the,opposite side,even so,on the,other hand,less than,different,from,more than,although,faster than,etc.,while,37,6.Development by Cause&Effect,In our daily conversation,questions with,why,are often asked and answered.This is called,causal analysis,(,因果分析,).There are two basic ways of organizing a paragraph developed by cause and effect:,state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes;,state a cause and then mention the effects.,38,Sample 1,Analysis,In this paragraph,the opening sentence points out what the record companies have been doing recently,and the rest of the paragraph tells us how this affects the classical music industry in a negative way.Obviously the first sentence states the cause and then the rest of the paragraph states the effect.In the paragraph,though words like why or reason are not used,the cause-effect relationship is clearly implied in the content.,39,Sample 2,Analysis,This paragraph starts with the effect the housing in New York is worse for the Puerto Ricans.Then a series of causes are mentioned,such as Puerto Ricans who emigrate are poor,cheap apartments are hard to find,and cheap apartments are in the worse areas.After reading the paragraph,you can see why the housing in New York is worse for the Puerto Ricans.Sample 1 is a good example of a cause paragraph.,Please find out the expressions used for cause in the paragraph.,40,Expressions for Discussing Cause and Effect,so,consequently,as a result,thus,therefore,the result of,accordingly,because of,result in,for this reason,owing to,the effect of,since,the consequence of,hence,due to,have an effect on,because,the reason for,the cause of,It follows that,as,now that,so that,seeing that,thanks to,for fear that,out of,such _that,owe _ to,so as _ to,classifications,make _ possible,make it possible/impossible for _ to do,41,7.Development by Classification,To classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics,.We classify many things.If we classify apples,for instance,we may classify them according to size into large ones and small ones;according to color into red ones and green ones;according to