土建英语作业中英文对照翻译.doc

Foundations
All structures designed to be supported by the earth, including buindings, bridges, earth fills, earth and rock and concrete dams,consist of two parts. These are the superstructure, or upper part, and the substructure element which interfaces the superstructure and supporting ground. In the case of earth fills and dams, there is often not a clear line of demarcation between the superstructure and substructure. The foundation can be defined as the substructure and that adjacent zone of soil and rock which will be affected by both the substructure element and its loads.
The foundation engineer is that person who by reason of experience and training can be produce solutions for design problems involving this part of the engineered system. In this context,foundation engineering can be defined as the science and art of applying the principles of soil and structural mechanics together with engineering judgement to solve the interfacing problem.The foundation engineer is concerned directly with the structural members which affect the transfer of load from the superstructure to the soil such that the resulting soil stability and estimated deformations are tolerable.Since the design geometry and location of the substructure element often have an effect on how the soil responds,the foundation engineer must be reasonably versed in structural design.
Foundations for structures such as buildings, from the smallest residential to the tallest high-rise, and bridges are for the purpose of transmitting the superstructure load. These loads come from column-type members with stress intensities rangeing from perhaps 140MPa for steel to 10MPa for concrete to the supporting capacity of the soil, which is seldom over 500kPa but more often on the order of 200 to 250kPa.
Almost any reasonable structure can be built and safely supported if there is unlimited financing.Unfortunately, in the real situation this is seldom, if ever, the case, and the foundation engineer has the dilemma of making a decision under much less than the ideal condition, Also, even though the mistake may be buried, the results from the error are not and can show up relatively soon-and probably before any statute of limitations expires. These are reported cases where the foundation defects have shown up either during construction of superstructure or immediately thereafter.
Since the superstructure is buried, or is beneath the superstructure, in such a configuration that access will be difficult, should foundation inadequacies develop after the superstructure is in place; it is common practice to be conservative. A one or two percent over design, in these areas produces a larger potential investment return than in the superstructure.
The designer is always faced with the question of what constitutes a safe , economical design while simultaneously contending with the inevitable natural soil heterogeneity at a site. Nowadays that problem may be compounded by land scarcity requiring reclamation of areas which have been used as sanitary landfills, garbage dumps, or even hazardous waste disposal areas. Still another complicating factor is that the act of construction can alter the soil properties considerably from those used in the initial analyse of the foundation.These factors result in foundation design becoming so subjective and difficult to quantify that two design firms might come up with completely different designs which would perform equally satisfactory. Cost would likely be the distinguishable feature for the preferred design.
This problem and the widely differing solutions would depend, for example, on the folling.
1)What constitutes satisfactory and tolerable settlement ; how much extra could, or should , be spent to reduce estimated settlements from say 30 to 15mm
2)Has the client been willing to authorize an adequate soil exploration programwhat kind of soil variability did the soil borings indicateWould additional borings actually improve the foundation recommendations
3)Can the buildings be supported by the soil using
4)What are the consequences of a foundation failure in term of public safety What is the likelihood of a lawsuit if the foundation does not perform adequately
5)Is sufficient money available for the foundation It is not unheard of that the foundation alone would cost so much that the project is not economically feasible. It may be necessary to abandon the site in favor of one where foundation costs are affordable
6)What is the ability of the local construction force It is hardly sensible to design an elaborate foundation if no one can built it, or if it is so different in design that the contractor includes a large "uncertainty" factor in the bid.
7)What is the engineering ability of the foundation engineer While this factor is listed last,this is not of least importance in economical design. Obviously engineers have different levels of capability just as in other professions and in the trades such as carpenters, electricians ,and painters.
If the foundation fails because of any cost shaving, the client tends to be quickly lose appreciation for the temporary financial benefit which accrued. At this point , facing heavy damages and a lawsuit, the client is probably in the poorest mental state of all the involved parties. Thus, one should always bear in mind that absolute dollar economics may not produce good foundation engineering.
The foundation engineer must look at the entire system,the building purpose, probable service-life loading, type of framing, soil profile, construction methods, and construction costs to arrive at a design that is consistent with the client needs and does not excessively degrade the environment . This must be done with a safety factor which produces a tolerable risk to both the public and the owner.
Considering these several areas of uncertainty, it follows that risk and liability insurance for persons engaged in foundation engineering is very costly. In attempts to reduce these costs as well as produces a design , which could be obtained from several engineering firms there is active discussion of having the foundation engineer submit the proposed design to a broad of qualified engineers for a "peer review".
中文翻译：
地基根底
所有由土根底构造，包括建筑物，桥梁，土堤，土石坝与混凝土坝，都由两局部组成，它们是上部构造或者上面局部与下部构造单元，下部构造介于上部构造与支撑地层之间。对于土堤与坝来说，往往是没有明确划分界限。根底可以定义为下部构造，并且临近土与坝收到下部构造单元与它负荷影响。
根底工程师是，一个忧郁有经历与长期训练原因，可以提供关于这局部工程系统设计问题解决方案人。在这种情况下，根底工程可以被定义为应用土与构造力学结合工程判断原那么，共同解决类似问题科学与艺术。由于设计几何形状与下部构造单元位置往往对土壤有效果，所以根底工程师在构造设计中必须合理精通。
那些建筑物构造根底，从最小住宅，到最高高层，与桥梁都是以传递上层建筑负荷为目。这些荷载来自构件柱形与构件应力强度，也许从140MPa钢到10MPa混凝土。土壤支撑能力很少超过500kPa，但更多时候在200〜250kPa之间。
如果工程造价没有限制话，几乎任何合理构造，都可以建立与平安支撑.但不幸是，在实际情况中，几乎是不可能，如果有这种情况话也是极少见，根底工程师也比理想条件下更难以作出决定，另外，即使错误可以掩埋，结果也不可以掩埋，可能相当快，或许在一切限制性条例到期之前，就会显现出来。 这些被报道案例中根底缺陷显现或许在上部构造工程建造期间出现或者紧随其后出现。
由于上部构造被掩埋，或者上部构造下方，在这样配置下，通道将是困难，或许根底缺陷，出现在上部构造之后是合理地方，它是常见做法是保守。如果将设计值超过一个或两个百分点在这些地方，可以比上层建筑产生更大潜在投资回报。
设计师总是面临着怎样构成一个平安，经济设计，同时关于不可防止自然土壤不均匀性问题争论在网站上上演。如今，这一问题可能会由于土地稀缺而加剧了，在这种情况下要求土地填海工程已采用卫生填埋场，垃圾场，甚至是危险废物处置领域地区。还有一个复杂因素是，建立行为可以从根底初始设计中改变土壤属性.这些因素导致根底设计变得如此主观，难以量化，完全不同两个设计公司可能提出完全不同设计方案，但结果执行同样令人满意。本钱将会是首选设计区别特征。
这个问题将取决于以下各种不同解决方案，例如：
1） 什么是满意与容许解决方案;多少额外，或者应该花费多少，来使定位点从30mm减少到15mm？
2） 客户是否愿意授权充足土壤勘探方案？什么样土壤变异显示土壤钻孔？额外钻孔会实际改善根底优点吗？
3） 建筑物可以只使用土壤做根底支撑吗？
4） 对于公工平安建筑物根底失效后果是什么？如果根底不能充分使用诉讼可能性是什么？
5） 如果用足够钱做根底有效吗？单独根底将花费这么多，在经济上是不可行工程不是闻所未闻。考虑到一个根底本钱是否负担得起有必要放弃这个方案吗？
6） 当地建筑构造应力能力是什么？如果没有人能建造它，精心制作一个设计合理根底是很难，或者如果它是如此不同设计，承包商包括在投标中有一个“不确定性〞因素。
7） 根底工程师工程能力是什么？虽然这个因素列在最后，但在经济性设计中这不是最重要。显然，工程师们就像在其他专业与行业，如木工，电工，画家中也有不同能力水平。
如果因为任何费用减少而使根底失效话，代理商往往将由于暂时累计经济利益减少而很快对方案失去了欣赏。在这一点上，面临巨额赔偿与诉讼，代理商可能是在所有参与有关各方中精神状态最贫穷。因此，应始终牢记，过分追求经济效益不一定会产生良好根底工程。
根底工程师，必须着眼于整个系统建立，包括永久荷载，框架构造类型，土壤剖面施工方法与施工费用满足客户需求设计，并且不会过分降低环境。必须做到这一点，这样会产生一个对于公众与雇主可以承受风险与平安系数。
考虑到上述几个方面不确定性，因此，风险与责任保险，对于从事根底工程人是非常昂贵。在尝试减少这些费用，以及制作设计方案时，可以凭借几个工程公司获得是“同行评议〞根底工程师提交建议设计方案定位成一个合格工程师建议已经引起广泛积极讨论。
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