研究生英语下册复习资料.doc

UNIT 1
There are two factors which determine an individual's intelligence. The first is the sort of brain he is born with. Human brains differ considerably, some being more capable than others. But no matter how good a brain he has to begin with, an individual will have a low order of intelligence unless he has opportunities to learn. So the second factor is what happens to the individual—the sort of environment in which he is brought up. If an individual is handicapped environmentally, it is likely that his brain will fail to develop and he will never attain the level of intelligence of which he is capable. The importance of environment in determining an individual's intelligence can be demonstrated by the case history of the identical twins, Peter and John. When the twins were three months old, their parents died, and they were placed in separate foster homes. Peter was reared by parents of low intelligence in an isolated community with poor educational opportunities. John, however, was educated in the home of well-to-do parents who had been to college. This environmental difference continued until the twins were in their late teens, when they were given tests to measure their intelligence. John's I.Q. was 125, twenty-five points higher than the average and fully forty points higher than his identical brother.
有两个因素决定一个人的智力。首先是他出生时带的大脑排序。人类的大脑彼此之间有很大不同，有的有比别人多的能力。但不管他出生时有多好的大脑，个人将有低下的智力，除非他有学习的机会。因此第二个因素是在他长大的环境中发生了什么。如果一个人在环境方面有障碍，很可能他的大脑将无法发展，他将永远不会他能够达到的智力水平。同卵双胞胎彼得和约翰的经历可以说明环境对于一个人智力发展的重要性。当这对双胞胎三个月大，他们的父母去世了，他们分别被安置在不同的寄养家庭。彼得被寄养在一个孤立的社区并且教育机会少，低智商的父母家中。然而约翰，在生活富裕、上过大学的父母家中接受教育。这种环境差异继续到这对双胞胎十几岁时，当测试他们的智力时。约翰的I.Q.是125，高于普通人二十五点，比他的兄弟高出整整四十分。
UNIT 2
Recent studies of the human brain have resulted in some interesting discoveries. Scientists believe that a way to improve the power of the brain may soon be possible.
Scientists have discovered that the brain can make its own drugs. The brain contains a protein substance which can act directly on the brain to change aspects of mental activity. Some may change or improve, for example, creativity, intelligence, imagination, and good memory.
Chemicals found in the brain carry messages. In recent years scientists have found chemicals that affect mood, memory and other happenings of the mind. About 25 have been found so far.
Today the role of chemicals and protein substance in human behaviour is creating much interest. Research seems to show that they may help control insomnia, pain, and mental illness. They have a great capacity to stimulate the brain to conquer deficiencies. They also improve the qualities of memory and learning already in the brain. They hold the secret to mood and emotion. Some day there may be a chemical way to create a better and more efficient brain.
最近对人类大脑的研究报告中有一些有趣的发现：科学家认为一种改善大脑功能的方法可能很快成为可能。  
 科学家们发现大脑可以产生自己的药物。大脑中含有一种蛋白物质，它可以直接作用于大脑以改变心理活动的各个方面。有些可能会改变或改善，例如，创造力，智力，想象力和良好的记忆力。
 在大脑中发现的化学物质携带着消息。近年来科学家们已发现影响情绪，记忆和大脑活动的其它化学物质。目前约25种已被发现
     今天，化学物质和蛋白质物质在人类行为的作用引起了人们很大的兴趣。研究似乎表明，它们可能有助于控制失眠，疼痛，和精神病。它们有一个巨大的能力来刺激大脑克服不足。它们还提高记忆和大脑中应经存在的学习质量。他们保持情绪和情感的秘密。将来有一天，有可能会有一种化学方法来创造一个更好、更有效率的大脑。
Unit 3 
By measuring the amount of HIV’s genetic material in various representative tissue samples from infected people, and extrapolating form these samples to the entire body, Haase estimates that at most 1 in 2,500 cells, maybe fewer, is 
infected with HIV. This is nowhere near enough for direct cell killing to account for the depletion in their numbers that leads to AIDS. 
通过测试被感染者具有代表性的组织样本中HIV的遗传材料，从这些样本推算整个身体，哈泽估计，最多1 ／2500，或许更少，感染了HIV。这对于直接杀死细胞引起细胞大量消亡而导致艾滋病是远远不够的。
Haase says that his own work now shows that large numbers of CD4 cell are becoming trapped in lymph tissue, and he believes that HIV also disrupts the production of new cells. In common with a number of other researchers, he also 
believes that HIV may cause the loss of uninfected CD4 cells by triggering abnormally high levels of cell suicide,or apoptosis-a separate process that has been a subject of research throughout the 1990s . 
哈泽说自己现在的工作表明，大量的CD4细胞被困在淋巴组织，而且他认为，艾滋病病毒会破坏新细胞的产生。研究人员普遍认为，艾滋病毒可以通过触发细胞自毁或消亡，导致未受感染的CD4细胞减少。在20世纪90年代这一过程曾是一个研究课题。
Taken together, these findings clearly suggest that HIV keeps the immune system in a state of constant activation,
and unbalances it in four ways :by trapping mature cells ,by stopping the production of new cells, by triggering 
abnormally high rates of apoptosis and by killing a small but significant number of cells directly. Their combined impact leaves the immune system depleted and unable to cope with opportunistic infections. 
总之，这些研究结果清楚地表明，艾滋病病毒使免疫系统处于激活状态，不平衡的方式有四种：通过捕获成熟细胞，停止生产新的细胞，通过触发异常的高细胞凋亡率，直接杀死小但是数量大的细胞。他们共同影响使免疫系统衰亡，无法应对感染。
How will any of this affect treatments? Would better knowledge of the ways in which the virus disturbs the immune system enable researchers to rebuild it ,broadening the depleted repertoire of CD4 cells ? Roederer , at least, thinks that drugs that directly affect the immune system will be needed. 
如何处理这些影响？最好的方式，利用病毒干扰免疫系统的理论，使研究人员能够对其重建，拓宽CD4细胞消亡的部分？Roederer，认为至少需要药物直接影响免疫系统。
Others go further, Jay Levy at the University of California , San Francisco, worries that prolonged treatment with cocktails of antiviral drugs  might even fool the immune system and “put it to rest”, by keeping levels of HIV so low in the body that they fail to trigger any immune responses at all. This might make individuals who stop taking the drugs even more vulnerable. He argues that immune-restoring treatments should be given alongside antiviral drugs. Already, some researchers are working on novel approaches such as developing genetically engineered T cell to replace lose CD4 cells. 　　其他人走得更远，旧金山加利福尼亚大学Jay Levy担心，持续很久的抗病毒药物鸡尾酒疗法，甚至欺骗免疫系统 “让它休息”，使体内保持艾滋病毒很少的状态，他们没有引发任何免疫反应。这可能会使人停止服药而更容易受到攻击。他认为，免疫恢复治疗应与抗病毒药物一起进行。目前，一些研究人员正在研究新的方法，如开发基因T细胞来取代失去的CD4细胞。

UNIT 4 What is globalization?
Economic "globalization" is a historical process the result of human innovation and technological progress. It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through trade and financial flows. The term sometimes also refers to the movement of people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international borders There are also broader cultural, political and environmental dimensions of globalization that are not covered here.
At its most basic, there is nothing mysterious about globalization. The term has come into common usage since the 1980s, reflecting technological advances that have make it easier and quicker to complete international transactions—both trade and financial flows. It refers to an extension beyond national borders of the same market forces that have operated for centuries at all levels of human economic activity—village markets, urban industries, or financial centers.
Markets promote efficiency through competition and the division of labor—the specialization that allows people and economies to focus on what they do best. Global markets offer greater opportunity for people to tap into more and larger markets around the world. It means that they can have access to more capital flows, technology, cheaper imports, and larger export markets. But markets do not necessarily ensure that the benefits of increased efficiency are shared by all. Countries must be prepared to embrace the policies needed, and in the case of the poorest countries may need the support of the international community as they do so.
什么是全球化？
     经济“全球化”是一个历史过程，是人类创新和技术进步的结果。它指的是世界各地的经济日益一体化，特别是通过贸易和资金流动。这个术语有时也指人（劳动力）和知识（技术）跨越国际边界的运动。也有更广泛的文化，政治和环境的全球化，这里没有涉及到的范围。
    关于全球化，其最基本的，没有什么神秘的了。这个术语从20世纪80年代就已成为常见的用法，它反映了使国际交易双方的贸易和资金流动更容易和更快地完成的技术的进步。它指的是超越国界同一市场力量、在人类经济活动的乡村市场，城市工业和金融中心的各级经营的几个世纪的延伸。
     市场通过竞争和劳动分工——允许人民和经济集中在他们所做的最好的的专业化，来促进效率。全球市场为人们提供更多的机会来开发世界各地的更多，更大的市场。这意味着他们可以有机会获得更多的资本流动，技术，廉价进口和更大的出口市场。但市场并不一定确保所有共享的、提高效率的好处。国家必须准备接受必要的政策，以及最贫穷国家可能需要国际社会支持的情况，就像他们做的如此。
UNIT 5 Spinal Cords
Agricultural and public-health experts in Britain find many other serious flaws in the government's handling of the mad-cow epidemic. Officials waited 18 months after discovering the first cases of BSE to declare it a "notifiable" disease, requiring that all cases be reported to the authorities. They waited nearly three years to forbid use of cattle brains and spinal cords in food for humans. The government offered to compensate farmers for any suspected BSE cases they destroyed -- but at far less than the animal's normal value, a rate that discouraged farmers from reporting the disease in their herds, according to critics. "It could all have been over in a month," says Millstone. "It might have cost a few million pounds. But that's a fraction of what it's going to cost now."
Currie argues that the government likewise fumbled when it disclosed the possible link between CJD and mad-cow disease. "If you are going to announce a health scare," she says, "you have to announce at the same time what you are going to do about it." The government has yet to announce any preventive measures beyond a few tightened restrictions, such as the ban on mammalian meat in cattle feed. Currie herself knows all too well how easy it is to start a public health panic; she left her post as health minister after helping touch off a scare in the winter of 1988-89 over the safety of British eggs and other farm products.
脊髓
英国的农业和公共卫生专家发现许多其他政府处理疯牛症疫情的严重缺陷。官员在发现第一例疯牛病后用了18个月来宣称它是一种“需要向官方汇报”的疾病：要求所有事例都向当局报告。他们等待了近三年来禁止牛脑和脊髓在人类食品中使用。政府为农民提供补偿，因为他们销毁了任何疑似疯牛病病例，但根据评论家所称，补偿远少于动物的正常价值，劝阻农民报告自家牛群疾病的费用。“这可能在一个月内” Millstone说：“这可能要花费数百万英镑，但这是现在要花费的一部分。”
     柯里认为，政府在披露克雅氏病和疯牛病之间可能存在的联系时同样是在摸索 。“如果你要宣布一个健康恐慌，”她说，“你需要同时宣布你要做些什么。”政府还没有宣布任何超出了一些限制的预防措施，比如禁止在牛饲料中放哺乳动物的肉。柯里自己太清楚地知道它是多么容易造成公共健康的恐慌；在帮助掀起了1988至1989年冬季对英国的鸡蛋和其他农产品的安全性恐慌后，她辞去了她卫生部长的职位。
UNIT 6
Almost every American wears a watch, and, in nearly every room in an American home, there's a clock. "Be on time." "Don't waste time." "Time is money." "Time waits for no one." All of these familiar sayings reflect the American obsession with promptness and efficiency. Students and employees disappoint their teacher and bosses when they arrive late. This desire to get the most out of every minute often affects behavior, making Americans impatient when they have to wait. The pressure to make every moment count sometimes makes it difficult for Americans to relax and do nothing. The desire to save time and handle work more efficiently often leads Americans to buy many kinds of machines. These range from household appliances to equipment for the office, such as calculators, photocopy machines, and computers. One such machine is video cassette recorder (VCR), which gives Americans a new kind of control over time. Baseball fans don't have to miss the Sunday afternoon game on TV because of a family birthday party. They simply videotape it. Then, for them, the Sunday afternoon game occurs on Sunday evening.
几乎每一个美国人都戴手表，并且在几乎每一个美国家庭的房里间都有一个钟表。“准时”，“不要浪费时间”，“时间不等人”。所有这些耳熟能详的谚语反映的是美国人对守时和效率的痴迷。学生和员工在他们的老师和老板迟到时会对他们感到失望。这种想最大限度利用每一分钟的渴望往往会影响他们的行为，使美国人当他们不得不等待时不耐烦。想要利用每一分钟的压力有时让美国人难以放松，什么也不做。节省时间和更有效地处理工作的愿望，经常导致美国人购买多种机器。从家用电器到办公室设备，比如计算器，复印机和电脑。一个这样的机器是录像机（VCR），为美国人提供了一种对时间新的控制。棒球球迷不用因为一个家庭生日派对而错过电视上周日下午的比赛。他们简单地把它录下来。然后对他们来说，周日下午的比赛周日晚上发生。
UNIT 7
Intellectual property regimes coupled with trade regulations have serious implications for third world economies. Agricultural research has developed much faster on plants than animals. And there is insufficient reason to expect that if species patents on plants are upheld, the practice of granting such patents will be restricted to them. It seems from developments so far that the blitzkrieg is inching its way to higher life forms.
Protection and enforcement strategies for plant-based technology are implemented through four different forms of intellectual property: utility plants, plant patents, plant variety protection certificates and trade secrets. Since patenting provides a broader range of protection and costs less, this has potential to be preferred means of protecting plant-based inventions by private companies in the US. New utility patents form more aggressive property rights than ever existed in biological material before.
Utility patents can establish property right in broad classes of organisms in radically different species as long as the organisms have the same traits and functional properties. The Harvard oncomouse patent is actually an onco mammal patent. Harvard thus owns any mammal with any recombinant cancer causing gene, (and there are about forty of them known) inserted into any mammal or its ancestors at an embryonic stage. This allows biotechnicians to patent organisms they have never actually produced.
Broadly worded patent rights (as in the case of cotton or soybean), or the taking out of a large number of patents effectively suppress competition through the threat of infringement suits. On a global scale this allows patent holders to exert control on the production of a variety of agricultural commodities leading to unprecedented competitive advantage. The enormity of this possibility has led to "biocolonial" concerns in the developing world.
Utility patents also prohibit farmers from the common practice of saving and using seeds from previous crops or from breeding animals, as well as restricting research exemptions. This could create a barrier to further innovation. Most nations have in place a research exemption analogous to the fair use doctrine in copyright law.
知识产权与贸易制度对第三世界经济造成严重影响。关于植物的农业研究发展的比动物要快得多。并且没有足够的理由期待，如果支持物种专利植物，对于他们批准专利的习惯将被限制。似乎从发展到目前为止，闪击战在通向更高的生命形式的路上缓慢前行。
    对以植物为基础的技术的保护和执法战略通过四种不同形式的知识产权：实用植物，植物专利，植物新品种保护证书和商业秘密来实施。由于专利提供了一个更广泛的保护并且成本低，这有可能成为在美国的私人公司保护以植物为基础的发明的首选方法。实用新型专利比之前存在于生物材料的任何形式具有更激进的产权。
    只要生物具有相同的特征和功能特性，实用专利就可以在完全不同的物种广泛的生物上建立产权。哈佛肿瘤鼠的专利实际上是一个肿瘤哺乳动物专利。哈佛大学因此拥有带有任何重组致癌基因的任何哺乳动物（其中约四十种已知）插入到任何哺乳动物它或处于胚胎阶段的祖先。这允许生物技术人员他们申请从来没有实际制造的生物的专利。
     措辞广泛的专利权（例如棉花或大豆），或其中拿出来的大量专利通过侵权诉讼的威胁有效地抑制竞争。在全球范围内，这允许专利持有人对导致了前所未有的竞争优势的各种农产品生产施加控制。这种巨大的可能性已经导致了发展中世界对“biocolonial”的关注。
     实用新型专利也禁止农民保存和使用从以前作物的种子或动物繁育的种子的普遍做法，以及限制研究豁免。这可能对进一步创新造成的障碍。类似于在版权法中对公平使用原则的豁免，大多数国家的研究豁免已经到位。
Unit 8
Shyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are excessively concerned with their own appearance and actions. Worrisome thoughts are constantly occurring in their minds; What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? Am I wearing unattractive clothes?
It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. A person's self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves, and the way a person behaves affects other people's reactions. In general, the way people think about themselves has a profound effect on all areas of their lives.
Shy people, having low self-esteem, are lik