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41. 　作为燃料的石油
　　1. This chapter might perhaps have been entitled "Petroleum as a Primary Source of Heat, Light and Power", for it is not intended to do more than briefly mention those other important cases where oil is a secondary source of energy. 本章似应以“作为初级热、光和动力源的石油”为副题，因为对于石油在其中用作二次能源的其他重要情况，本章只打算简略提及。Among the most important of these is the use of petroleum fuels in central power stations for the generation of electricity, supplementing or replacing the solid fuel historically used for this purpose. 最重要的情况之一是石油作为电站燃料用于发电，以补充或取代历史上为此目的而使用的固体燃料。An equally striking use of petroleum is in the gas industry where, in addition to the very large quantities of gas oil and fuel oil employed for enriching or carburetting water gas(thus increasing its calorific value to the level normally required by regulations), modern techniques enable us to manufacture town gas from any petroleum feedstock, from methane to heavy fuel oil. 同样令人惊讶的是石油用于煤气工业，在此，除大量粗柴油和燃料油被用作水煤气的富化和增碳（这是为了增加它的热值以达到通常由规范所要求的水平）此外，现代技术使我们能够用任何石油供料，从甲烷到重油，来加工城市煤气。Thus heat, light and power in the familiar form of gas or electricity "on tap" may well be manufactured from petroleum fuels in the first place. 这样，以煤气和电这种随用随取的熟悉形式出现的热、光、和动力，都首先是可以从石油燃料中加工而得的。
　　2. Fuels derived from petroleum may be in gaseous, liquid or solid form. 从石油中得到的燃料可以是气体、液体和固体等形式。The solid fuels may be dealt with briefly. 可以先简单提一下固体燃料。Wax, in the form of candles, is a long established illuminant, while petroleum coke, though on occasions marketed as a fuel, finds its preferred use as a material for the preparation of carbon electrodes. 石蜡，做成蜡烛的形式，是常用不衰的照明用品，然而油焦虽偶尔作为燃料出售，现在却找到了一种更合适的用途，即成为制造碳电极的材料。
　　3. Petroleum gases consist in principle of hydrocarbons in the C1 to C4 range. 石油气主要是C1到C4这个范围内的碳氢化合物组成的。The expressions C1,C2,C3 ... are a convenient shorthand for designation hydrocarbons with respectively 1,2,3 (and so on) atoms of carbon in the molecule. 用C1、C2、C3 ......等符号是一些方便的缩写，分别用以标记每个分子中含有1、2、3.....等等个碳原子的碳氢化合物，Thus the term "C4 hydrocarbons" covers not only the paraffin hydrocarbon butane (C4H10), but can also include other hydrocarbons such as iso-butane, and the three unsaturated butylenes, which also contain 4 carbon atoms. “C4烃”所包含的不仅是石蜡族烃的丁烷（C4Ｈ10），还包括其它烃类如异丁烷和三不饱和丁烯，它们也都含有四个碳原子。
　　4. Most of the total world pool of petroleum gases consists of natural gas (mainly methane, CH4) which is usually obtained in association with crude oil direct from the wells and may be piped over long distances to its point of utilization. 石油气的世界总储量中大部分是由天然气（主要是甲烷）组成的，通常它是和原油一道从油井中得到并经过长距离送到它的使用地点。Another large source of petroleum gas is that produced in refineries, which is generally less rich in methane, containing more hydrocarbons of the C2, C3 and C4 groups. 石油气的另外一个大的来源是炼厂，一般地它们的甲烷含量较少而含有较多的C2、C3和C4等烃类。
　　5. The C3 and C4 hydrocarbons derived either from natural gases or refinery gases are generally separated and, being fairly easily liquefiable under pressure, are generically known as liquefied petroleum gas or l.p.g. C3和C4烃，不论是来自天然气还是来自炼厂，通常都加以分离，并且由于它们在加压条件下易于液化，通常称为液化石油气或L.P.G。In the United States these liquefied gases are largely obtained from field production: elsewhere they mostly originate during distillation of crude oil and further processing, as in the various conversion processes such as thermal cracking and reforming, and catalytic cracking and reforming. 在美国，这种石油气大部分来自油田生产，其它地方则大都产自原油分馏及其后续过程，如热裂和重整以及催化裂化和重整等各种转化过程。These liquefied petroleum gases represent an important source of high calorific value fuel. 这些液化石油气是一类重要的高热值燃料的来源。
　　6. It is the fuels which are in a liquid state at normal ambient temperatures and atmospheric pressures which spring most readily to mind, namely gasolines (aviation and motor), kerosines and tractor vaporizing oil, gas oils and, to a continually increasing extent, diesel fuel and residual fuel oil. 在正常环境温度和大气压力下处于液态的那一类燃料很容易浮现在人们的意识中，它们是（航空和汽车）汽油、煤油、拖拉机汽化油、柴油，以及在越来越大程度上还有柴油机燃油和残余燃油。
　　7. The direct utilization of petroleum as a fuel has sometimes been divided into so-called "internal" and "external" combustion processes.石油作为燃料直接使用有时被分为所谓的“内燃”和“外燃”两种过程。In the former the fuel converts heat into work, either through the medium of a reciprocating or piston engine where the combustion process is intermittent, or in, say, a gas turbine where the combustion is continuous. 在前一情况下，燃料以往复或活塞式发动机为媒介，通过动脉式的燃烧，或者是在所谓燃气透平中通过连续燃烧，将热变为功。The other group, where combustion does not take place in an engine, covers such things as steam raising, illumination and heating processes of all kinds. 另一种情况是燃烧并不在发动机内，这包括如蒸气提升．照明以及加热等诸如此类的过程。This method of classification, however, is not particularly attractive and it might be simpler to regard the division as between engine fuels and those for other applications. 然而，这种分类方法并不特别为人们所喜欢，把这看成是发动级燃烧与其它用途之间的区分到可能是更简单一些。

42. Preface（石油词典的）前言
　　1. The petroleum Industry is varied and complex and is dependent upon a vast body of scientific personnel and technology. 石油工业多变而且复杂，并依赖于一个庞大的科学工作者的群体和技术。Each area of specialization is almost an industry within itself. 专业化的每一个领域也几乎就是在它内部的一门工业。The principle functions are exploration, geophysics, drilling, production, gas processing, refining, pipeline, marketing and supporting research functions. Each area is further broken down into separate supporting functions. 石油工业的主要功能是勘探、地球物理、钻井、采油、天然气加工、炼油、管道、贸易以及支柱性研究功能。
　　2. In addition, whole industries have been built from particular segments. 此外，整个石油工业是由一些特殊的部门建立起来的。The drilling industry, pipeline, chemical, muds, offshore drilling and support facilities, seismic contracting, engineering, construction and supporting equipment are but a few. 钻井工业、管道、化学、泥浆、近海钻井及支柱设施、地震承包、工程、建筑及支柱性设备，这只是其中的一些。The petrochemical industry is related, but in a sense is a separate function. 石油化工则是与此相关，但在一定意义上又是一种分立的功能。
　　3. In exploration there are many sciences that blend together to complement each other and are broken down into exploration, exploitation, and production geology seismology and geophysics. 在勘探方面，有许多种科学互相补充地掺合在一起并又分解为勘探、开发、采油地质、地震和地球物理。
　　4. Production includes the drilling of oil wells both onshore and offshore, the design and construction of surface well equipment, the building of pipelines to carry the crude to the refineries, the construction and maintenance of gas plant facilities, workover and remedial work. 油田生产包括陆地和海洋石油钻井，油田地面设备的设计和建设，铺设管道以及将原油送往炼厂，天然气加工设施的建筑和保养，修井和补救工作。Also allied is reservoir engineering, with secondary and enhanced recovery. 与之相结合的还有油藏工程和二次采油以及提高采收率。
　　5. The basic principle of oil refining is to separate crude oil into its major chemical components simply by heating and distilling off the various fractions in a tower. 石油炼制的基本原理就是在炼塔中依靠加热和分馏将原油分解为它的各主要化学成份。However, the processes to achieve this end are very complex and require complicated equipment and procedures to obtain petroleum products such as fuels, lubricants, asphalts, and waxes from the various types of crudes processed through the refinery. 然而，要做到这一点的过程是非常复杂的，需要复杂的设备和程序以获得石油产品如从各种类型原油通过炼制过程加工而得的燃料油、润滑油、沥青和石蜡。
　　6. All these areas are covered in the Petroleum Dictionary. 所有这些方面都覆盖在这本石油词典中。In addition, other related subjects have been covered because of their direct and indirect relationships, such as soils, oceanography vulcanism, stream erosion, glaciation, and shore processes. 此外，由于直接或间接的关联，还覆盖其它一些相关的领域如土壤、海洋学、火山、流动侵蚀、冰川和海岸过程。
　　7. A dictionary could be prepared on each segment of the industry because of the complex terminology and individual technical aspects. 由于术语和各个技术侧面的复杂性，可以为石油工业的每个部门准备一部词典。There are dictionaries on the market covering lightly various aspects of the petroleum industry, or in detail, on specific areas of specialization. 一些在市面上有售的词典稍许覆盖了石油工业的各个侧面，也有一些针对专门领域的详细词典。It is believed that this Petroleum Dictionary is the first comprehensive combination dictionary-handbook that covers virtually all aspects of the petroleum industry, with comprehensive coverage of geology, geophysics, seismology, drilling, gas processing, production, a detailed analysis of various refining operations and processes, offshore technology, and description of various materials and supporting techniques used in drilling and production of oil and gas. 人们相信，您手头这本词典才是首次将词典－手册合理地组合在一起，它真正地覆盖了石油工业的全部各个方面，并合理地包括了地质、地球物理、地震、钻井、天然气加工、采油、各种炼制操作和程序的详细分析，海上开采技术以及用于钻井和石油及天然气生产的各种材料和支助技术。
　　8. This Petroleum Dictionary should be of interest and of use to everyone involved in the petroleum industry and supporting activities, the student, and a reference source for every library. 本词典将会使每一个与石油工业及其支助部门有关的人士和学生感兴趣并且有用，它也应成为每个图书馆的参考书。
43. 石油开采
　　1.The petroleum in an oil and gas reservoir will never be completely recovered. 在油和气储层中的石油是决不会完全开采出来的。A fraction will always remain in the reservoir for a number of reasons. 由于种种原因，其中的一部分将始终留在储层中。For example, the reservoir may have insufficient energy of its own to expel the petroleum, capillary forces will prevent oil movement, the oil may be too viscous to move under reservoir conditions or some may be contained in blind pores which are not linked up to the overall reservoir porosity system (though this would beg the question of how petroleum might have entered in the first place). 例如，储层本身可能没有足够的能量来排出石油，毛细作用会妨碍石油的运移，石油可能过于粘稠而不能在储层条件下移动，或者一些石油是含在盲孔中而不与整个储层的孔隙系统相沟通（虽然这也就提出了当初它是怎样进去的这一未曾解决的问题）。An ideal recovery mechanism would optimize the rate of petroleum production (and with it cash flow and the return on investment) and maximize the proportion of petroleum that will be eventually recovered. 一种理想的开采机制应当优化石油生产率（以及与之相伴而来的现金流通和投资回报），并使最终得以开采出来的那部分石油的比例最大。 In practice, there tends
to be a trade off between the two objectives: the recovery scheme that gets the oil out of the ground fastest (usually preferred by oil companies) frequently leaves a large proportion of it behind (usually not liked by governments). 在实际上，这两个目标之间有一种交替置换的趋向：使石油最快地从地下采出的方案（石油公司往往愿意这样）经常会使很大一部分石油剩留下来（这是政府所不喜欢的）。 A consequence of improvements in recovery methods is that the recoverable reserves of fields tend to be occasionally revised upwards (which is good for share prices and cheaper than exploration). 改善开采方法的一个后果是，油田的可采储量往往是提高了（这有利于分摊价格并比勘探便宜）。A 2％reserves growth in a 10 billion barrel oilfield, for example, could be worth hundreds of millions of pounds. 比方说，对于一个百亿桶的大油田而言，2％的石油储量增长就值好几亿英镑。
　　2.Petroleum recovery mechanisms are divided into three broad categories.石油开采的机制可划分为三个宽阔的范畴。
　　(1) Primary recovery, in which the inherent energy of the reservoir or adjacent aquifer provides the necessary drive for petroleum production. 一次采油，这时储层或邻近的含水层的内在能量为石油开采提供了必要的驱动力。Primary recovery mechanisms include gas cap drive, solution gas drive, compaction drive and aquifer drive. 一次采油的机制包括气顶驱动．溶气驱动．压实驱动和含水层驱动。
　　(2). Secondary recovery, in which additional energy is introduced into the reservoir-aquifer system to accelerate production and increase ultimate recovery. Secondary recovery mechanisms include seawater and gas injection. 二次采油，在此要向油藏一含水层系统引入外加的能量以加速开采和提高最终采收率。二次采油的机制包括海水和气体的注入。
　　(3) Tertiary recovery, more commonly referred to as enhanced oil rcovery (EOR), which involves changing the physical and chemical properties of the reservoir. 三次采油，更普通的名称是提高采收率（EOR），它包括改变油藏的物理和化学性质。EOR methods include the introduction of heat through fireflooding or steamflooding to reduce the viscosity of heavy oils and improve their mobility and the addition of chemicals such as surfactants and CO2 to improve oil permeability. EOR方法包括通过火驱和气驱来引进热量以降低重油的粘滞率，改善流动度（运移性），以及加入化学品如表面活性剂和ＣＯ2，以改善油的渗透性。
　　3. Inorganic geochemistry can make contributions to the design of all three types of recovery processes. 无机地球化学对于设计上述三种类型的开采程序都可以作出贡献。Its contribution to primary recovery is largely to early prediction of reservoir quality. 它对一次采油的贡献多半是对油藏质量的早期预告。
　　4. The main corrosive fluids affecting oil and gas fields areH2S, known as sour gas, and CO2. 对油气田产生影响的主要腐蚀性流体是以酸性气体而知名的H2S和CO2。H2S is corrosive to most materials used in petroleum productionand is highly toxic. H2S对石油生产中使用的大部分材料都是腐蚀性的，并有很大的毒性。CO2 is also highly corrosive. CO2也是高度腐蚀的。These gases may be natural reservoir fluids or may be generated as an unwelcome by-product of the petroleum recovery process itself. 这些气体可能是天然储藏中的，也可能是油田开采过程本身所带来的一种不受欢迎的副产品。It is important to know which. 知道是上述来源中的哪一种，是很重要的。Inorganic geochemistry can assist in identifying the origin of the fluid, likely quantities to be produced and reservoir intervals which are particularly prone to corrosive fluid production. 无机地球化学有助于识别腐蚀性流体的来源以及产生的数量，还有特别易于产生腐蚀性流体的那些储层区间。
44.Introduction to Reservoir Engineering油藏工程引论(I)
1. The condition under which crude petroleum and natural gas occur in nature have been outlined in earlier chapters together with a discussion of the methods used in finding the various local accumulations or reservoirs. 原油和天然气在自然界出现的条件已在前面各章中概述，同时还讨论了用于寻找油和气的各种局部积聚或储藏的方法，Normally, absolute proof of the presence of hydrocarbons can only be obtained by drilling wells, which also provide the only outlet, and practically the whole of the current petroleum production is derived in this way. 认真地说，烃存在的绝对证实只能是靠钻井来得到，钻井还提供了烃的唯一通道，实际上目前的石油生产全部都是像这样来做的。
　　2. Ultimately the world's commercial hydrocarbon reserves will be greatly increased by the mining of tar sands andthe distillation of oil shales; 依靠开采沥青砂和提炼油页岩，世界的商用烃的储量将会有很大的增加：the first commercial-scale plant exploiting the Athabasca tar sands of Northern Alberta is in fact now in operation, and the production of shale oil on a modest scale has a long history in various countries. 事实上第一个以商业规模开发北阿尔伯达省阿萨巴斯卡沥青砂的工厂现在仍在运转，中等规模的页岩油生产，在许多国家中都有很长的历史了。However, at present these methods are only of limited significance and no more than brief reference will be made to them in this chapter.但就目前而言，这些方面的意义有限，因而本章只限于简略地提及它们。
　　3. The problems arising in the course of production from the conventional type of field are broadly speaking of two kinds. 常规型油田的生产过程中所出现的问题大致地说有两类。First, there are the mechanical difficulties involved in the drilling of wells to obtain access to the producing formation and in lifting the oil to surface; 首先是机械困难，它是与钻井以达到产油构造以及把油提取到地表上来有关系的：so far as these are concerned, the practical methods available are not dissimilar in principle to those used in the production of underground water, though there are many complications in detail due to generally greater depth and higher pressure. 仅就这方面来说，其实际使用的方法和开采地下水的方法在原理上并无不同，当然还是有些细节的复杂之处的，这一般的是由于深度较大和压力较高。
　　4. Secondly, various specific and important problem arise from the fact that oil is always intimately associated with gas and water, and at the same time the amount in any particular reservoir is limited. 其次，许多特别而又困难的问题是由于油总是同气和水密切相关而引起的，Removal of oil leads necessarily to a reduction in pressure and a redistribution of the reservoir fluids; 同时，它也是由于任何特定储层中的问题是有限的，石油的提取必然会造成压力的下降和储层流体的再分布；in consequence, the practicable rate of production declines with time until continued operation becomes unprofitable, even though only a fraction of the oil originally in place has been recovered. 其结果是实际的生产率随时间而下降，直到继续运转变得无利可图，尽管原处的石油还只是开采了一部分。The recovery actually achieved from a g