语法导学-我的“三维语法”观之定语从句.doc

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我的“三维语法”观之定语从句
任何一门语法都是为了解决日常表达的需要而诞生和发展，而不是为了解题的需要。在长期的教学实践中，笔者逐渐掌握了一套语法学习的比较靠谱的方法。我认为语法应该围绕三个方面来学习：内涵、规律、运用。我且称之为“三维语法”。只要把握了三维，就可以说对语法有了透彻的感悟，不仅仅是学会了解决高考的单选或填空题，更重要的是在日常写作和口头表达里能熟练使用。且以定语从句为例，我的提纲是：
一、内涵：定语从句的缘起和术语的纠正。
二、规律：定语从句的转换规律和解题规律
三、运用：定语从句的多重功能和写作运用
一、内涵：定语从句的缘起和术语的纠正。
（一）先说缘起：
设想这样的场景：你想介绍一个朋友给身边的人，你这样说：
The girl there is my best friend.(那边的一个女生是我的最好的朋友。)
听者会有点糊涂的，那边那么多女生，谁知道你指的是谁啊？于是乎，你就要重新说明：
The most beautiful girl is my best friend.(最漂亮的那个女孩是我的最好的朋友。)
问题来了，听者会说，我觉得她们都很漂亮啊，谁知道你的审美标准是什么？于是乎你这样说：
The most beautiful girl in red is my best friend.(最漂亮的那个穿红衣服的女孩是我的最好的朋友。)
问题又来了，听者会说，有好几个穿红衣服的啊？于是乎，你这样说就没问题了。
The most beautiful girl in red who is dashing to the classroom is my best friend.(最漂亮的那个穿红衣服的冲向教室的女孩是我的最好的朋友。)
这个句子本来是可以分成两个句子的，即：
The most beautiful girl in red is my best friend. Look, she is dashing to the classroom now.
之所以合并，那是因为，英语（其实任何一门语言都这样）是讲究简洁的语言，尽量用最少的文字表达最多的含义。
以上我们总结一下，修饰一个事物，有四种手段：
1.用名词或形容词（beautiful）
2.用介词短语(in red)
3.用从句(who is dashing to the classroom)
4.用非谓语结构（此处不讲）
当用一个句子去修饰或说明另一个句子时，切记：二者必须有千丝万缕的关系。换句话说：有关系的两个句子，基本都能将其中的一个句子转为定语从句。“张三很帅。”和“李四很丑。”这是风马牛不相及的两个句子，你不可能把其中的任何充当定语从句去修饰另外一个。
（二）再说定语从句术语的纠正
当两个句子有千丝万缕关系的时候，我们都可以用到定语从句。问题是，定语这个概念太有局限性了，表示修饰，大抵就是汉语中的“……的”。但是很多时候，两个句子之间不存在谁修饰谁，但它们还是藕断丝连。所以很多语法学家（例如章振邦）称定语从句应该叫“关系分句”。请看此句：
If one is not handsome at twenty, nor strong at thirty, nor rich at forty, nor wise at fifty, he will never be handsome, strong, rich, or wise.
一个人若在20岁时不俊美、30岁时不健康、40岁时不富有、50岁时不明智，那么他将永远不会拥有这些。
这个句子明显是状语从句，从句和主句是假设关系。既然它们之间有“关系”，那么就可以用定语从句（请参考前面所说：有关系的两个句子，基本都能将其中的一个转为定语从句。）
下面这个句子才是最地道的：
àHe who is not handsome at twenty, nor strong at thirty, nor rich at forty, nor wise at fifty, will never be handsome, strong, rich, or wise.
读者请注意，这里面不只是名称的正身，而是对我们写作运用有莫大的作用。下文会讲到。
那么读者是不是要问：这些关系能否具体一一说明？你说基本可以转为定语从句，请明示具体的范围，谁知道基本是什么鬼？
莫急，听我一一道来：
二、规律：定语从句的转换规律和解题规律
（1）定语从句的转换规律
要知道一个句子能否转成定语从句，就必须寻找两个句子之间有没有共同的东西，这个东西应该是三个所指：名词所指；代词所指；副词（短语）所指。换句话说，两个句子之间必须有一个共同的名词或代词或副词（短语）。这就是我摸索的“提取公因式”法，步骤：
（1）先找两个句子的共同的东西，将主句的共同的东西变成被修饰的词（学名：先行词）
（2）将从句里的共同的东西去掉（因为它已经在主句里了），在主从句之间补上一个连接词（学名：关系代词或关系副词）。意即：这个关系代词或关系副词代指先行词，指向从句中被去掉的部分的位置。
请看下面6个例子，理解了它们，定语从句的理解就不存在问题了：
1. If dreams die, life is a broken-winged bird. It cannot fly. 假如梦想死亡，人生就是断翅的鸟儿不能飞翔。
分析：共同的东西：bird, it（主语）。这两个是一个概念。于是就要把第二个句子里作主语的it去掉在两个句子之间补上连接词。请看：
If dreams die, life is a broken-winged bird that / which cannot fly.
总结：当关系代词指代先行词，指向从句里的主语位置，那么用：that, which, who。
2. Do not make friends with those. You do not know them well. 不要和自己不充分了解的人交朋友。
分析：共同的东西：those, them（宾语）。
Do not make friends with those whom/ who/that/不填 you do not know them well.
总结：当关系代词指代先行词，指向从句里的宾语或表语位置，那么用：that, which, who， whom。
3. Success is a journey. Its initial step is paved with an inner passion. 成功是一次旅程，第一步是由内心的热情铺就的。
分析：共同的东西：journey, its（定语，表所属）。
Success is a journey whose initial step is paved with an inner passion.
总结：当关系代词指代先行词，指向从句里的定语位置，即“……的“，那么用：whose。
4）Take such measures. The situation calls for them.
分析：共同的东西：measures, them（宾语）。
Take such measures as the situation calls for.
总结：当关系代词指代先行词，先行词前有such/so/the same，指向从句里的主语或宾语位置，那么用：as。
5）There will be moments in life. Then you are presented with new options.人生中总会有面对新选择的时刻。
分析：共同的东西：moments, then(副词，作状语)
总结：当关系副词指代先行词，指向从句里的副词（短语）的位置，那么用： when（先行词是时间概念）, where（地点）, why（原因）。
以下几个例子，有专门的学名；非限制性定语从句（即：起到补充说明作用，去掉后不影响对句子主要意思的理解）
6) Each of us has a purpose. For it we were created.我们每个人生于世上都有其意义。（天生我材必有用）
分析：共同的东西：purpose, it。
Each of us has a purpose, for which we were created.
总结：当从句里的名词或代词所指前有介词时，直接形成：介词+which(指物)或介词+whom(指人)；介词+whose+名词
最后一种的例子是：
I am thankful to Jack, with whose help I passed the exam.
提示：关系副词when, where, why大都可以转为：介词+which。
7）Tom won the game. It surprised us.
分析：共同的东西：Tom won the game, it。
Tom won the game, which surprised us.
总结：当从句代词所指为主句整个句子或一个部分（短语），那么用关系代词which或as。
什么时候只用as: 置于句首；as is believed/expected/reported/said。
什么时候不用as:从句的结构是“主谓宾”，且关系代词指代从句里的主语。例如上面的which就不可为as。
（二）定语从句的解题规律
由于高考单选是要我们选关系词，所以请看我设计的这张图。

笔者认为，你只要掌握了上图的内容并解决了以下的题目，可以笑傲试卷里的任意定语从句题目了（前提：你需要认识题目里的单词）：
1. It is such a heavy stone _____ nobody can lift.
2. It is such a heavy stone __________ nobody can lift it.
3. This is the school __________ my father once worked.
4. This is the school _________ my father once visited.
5. I will never forget the moment ___________ we worked together.
6. I will never forget the moment _ we spent together.
7. I will never forget the moment ___________ she gave me a hug.
8. There are moments ___________ we had better remain silent.
9. The town is no longer the one _________ it was ten years ago.
10. This is the house _________ I used to live.
11. This is the house ___ I used to live in.
12. The house __________ I grow up has recently been torn down.
13. The old lady has three daughters, and two of ________ are doctors.
14. The old lady has three daughters, two of _________ are doctors.
15. The old lady has three daughters; two of ________ are doctors.
16. The old lady has three daughters, two of _______doctors.
17. Maria has written two novels, both of __________ made into television series.
答案：
1. as
2. that
3. where
4. that/which/-
5. when
6. which/that/-
7. when
8. when
9. which/that/-
10. where
11. which/that/-
12. where
13. them
14. whom
15. them
16. them
17. them
三、运用：定语从句多重功能和写作运用
（一）定语从句多重功能
我们写作时，如果遇到两个句子有“关系”，且有共同的东西的存在，那么就有可能用定语从句，且看我的分类：
（1）时间关系
He got lost in the forest when it was enveloped in fog.
àHe got lost in the forest which was enveloped in fog.
他在森林里迷路了，那是云雾笼罩着森林。
（2）因果关系
The food all went off because it wasn't in the fridge.
àThe food, which wasn't in the fridge, all went off.
食物都坏了，因为没有放在冰箱里。
Anger is a thief because it steals away the nice moments.
àAnger is a thief who steals away the nice moments. 愤怒就如同一个窃贼，盗取了我们的幸福时光。
（3）条件关系
The people were desperate for work, any work, as long as it could support their family.
àThe people were desperate for work, any work, which could support their family.
人们急于找到工作，什么工作都行，只要能养家糊口。
There is this difference between happiness and wisdom: if one thinks himself the happiest man, he really is so; but if one thinks himself the wisest, he is generally the greatest fool.
àThere is this difference between happiness and wisdom: the person who thinks himself the happiest man really is so; but the person who thinks himself the wisest is generally the greatest fool. 幸福与智慧区别于此：认为自己是最幸福的，他真的就最幸福；而认为自己是最有智慧的，他却往往是最大的傻瓜。
Those will acquire the skill to do difficult things easily only when they have the patience to do simple things perfectly.
àOnly the people who have the patience to do simple things perfectly will acquire the skill to do difficult things easily.只有有耐心圆满完成简单工作的人，才能够轻而易举地完成困难的事。
（4）让步关系
The millionaire had another house built, though he didn't need it at all.
àThe millionaire had another house built, which he didn't need at all.
那位百万富翁又建了一幢房子，尽管他并不需要。
（二）定语从句的写作运用
笔者以为，在写作中运用定语从句，有两个方式：
1.描述一个人或物，用到公式：
和同位语的结合：S, n. which/who…, V O:
Luxun, a great writer who wrote many powerful novels, made great contributions to our country.
和倒装句的结合：介词+V+S, which/who…:
In the center of the city stands my school, which enjoys a long history.
2.有状语从句存在的地方，可以简化为定语从句或者非谓语动词。
我且以2015年高考江苏真题的作文为例。这里我只是写几个句子，以求抛砖引玉。
……（摘选一部分）
结合上述信息，简要分析导致交通问题的主要原因；
根据你的分析，从社会规范(rules and regulations)和个人行为两方面谈谈你得到的启示(不少于两点)。
……
原因：
1. Because the number of private cars is on the rise, it has given rise to heavy traffic.
-->转换：The number of private cars is on the rise, which has given rise to heavy traffic.
2. What’s worse, some drivers, cyclists and pedestrians do not think it vital to obey traffic rules They pose a potential threat to others’ security.
-->转换：What’s worse, some drivers, cyclists and pedestrians who do not think it vital to obey traffic rules pose a potential threat to others’ security.
3. Though the construction of roads and highways has improved a lot, it cannot meet the growing demands, so there is still much room for improvement.
-->转换：The construction of roads and highways, which has improved a lot, cannot meet the growing demands, so there is still much room for improvement.
启示：
4. If each individual obeys rules and regulations, they will enjoy a harmonious society and live in a healthy way.
-->转换：Each individual who obeys rules and regulations will enjoy a harmonious society and live in a healthy way.
5. Though traffic rules are part of the rules and regulations closely related to public order, rules alone don’t secure an orderly society.
-->转换：Traffic rules, which are part of the rules and regulations closely related to public order, alone don’t secure an orderly society.

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