西文史复习资料.doc

西方文明史

1. Philosophes: know the individuals and the natural law of each
name
Brief intro.
natural law
Locke 洛克

(1632-1704)约翰·洛克，英国革命后期的资产阶级思想家，自由主义的奠基人、欧洲资产阶级启蒙运动的先驱、古典自然法学派的杰出代表人。
l People will naturally be good
l Social contrast
l Consent of Gov. was only legitimate Gov.
l Life liberty, property
Montesquieu 孟德斯鸠

孟德斯鸠，法国伟大的启蒙思想家、法学家，也是近代欧洲国家比较早的系统研究古代东方社会与法律文化的学者之一。他的著述《论法的精神》奠定了近代西方政治与法律理论发展的基础。

l People must be controlled
l People basically selfish
l Gov. shall be set up, so no man would be afraid of another
l Division of power
l 3 brands: executive, legislative, judicial
Rousseau 卢梭

是法国著名启蒙思想家、哲学家、教育家，是18世纪法国大革命的思想先驱，启蒙运动最卓越的代表人物之一。主要著作有《论人类不平等的起源和基础》、《社会契约论》
l Men are free and compassionate
l Sovereignty is in the hands of people
l Social contrast
Voltaire伏尔泰

伏尔泰 1694年11月21日—1778年5月30日 )，原名弗朗索瓦－马利·阿鲁埃，伏尔泰是他的笔名。法国启蒙思想家、文学家、哲学家。是十八世纪法国资产阶级启蒙运动的旗手。
l World government by natural laws which humans could figure out--men are happy.
l Right of fair trial
l Freedom of religion
l Criticized slavery
Hobbes霍布斯

霍布斯((1588-1679)，英国人。曾经做过培根的秘书，深受培根思想的影响。英国资产阶级革命期间，一度移居法国，克伦威尔执政时，返回英国。此后，他的思想得到了传播。

l Nature condition of humans is a state of war
l Freedom
l natural equlity
l Monarchy君主制
l Rights of individual
l Social contrast
2. Types of government in the 18th century
Absolutism 专制主义
Enlightened Monarchy 君主制
3. Music: significant composers/performers
l Bach (Johann Sebastian Bach) 巴赫：巴赫（1685~1750），最伟大的德国作曲家之一，以及大量的教堂音乐和器乐曲而著称。巴赫一生的主要功绩：第一，把音乐从宗教附属品的位置上解放了出来。音乐不总是歌颂上帝，也歌唱平凡的生命。 第二，他把复调音乐发展成主调音乐，大大丰富了音乐的表现力。 第三，他确立了键盘乐器十二平均律原则。 第四，除了声乐作品外，巴赫奠定了现代西洋音乐几乎所有作品样式的体例基础。因此巴赫被后世尊称为“西方音乐之父”。
代表作：Mass in B Minor, Saint Matthew 's passion
特色： to worship God.

l Handel George Frederick Handel）英国作曲家Baroque composer, famous for his operas, oratorios宗教剧, and concertos协奏曲. Handel was born in Germany. His works include Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks， but best known for his religious music (Messiah).

l Haydn 海顿: Franz Joseph Haydn 1732年他是维也纳古典乐派的第一位代表人物，奥地利著名音乐家，维也纳古典乐派的奠基人。海顿对古典音乐的主要贡献是交响曲和四重奏由于他对于交响曲体裁的形成和完善作出了巨大贡献，因此被人们称作“交响乐之父”。开始确立了近代管弦乐的编制和配器原则.Orchestral music 管弦乐
代表作The Creation . The Seasons

l Mozart 莫扎特：莫扎特是奥地利作曲家，欧洲维也纳古典乐派的代表人物之一，作为18世纪末时的欧洲作曲家，莫扎特的音乐深刻地反映了这个时代的精神，尤其是体现在歌剧作品中的市民阶层的思想，无疑在当时具有进步的意义。
代表作： The Marriage of Figaro 《费加罗的婚礼》
Don Giovanni《唐璜》（black comedy）
The Magic Flute《魔笛》。
Humanism:Humanism is a progressive philosophy of life that, without theism and other supernatural beliefs, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity.
Secularism: Secularism is the belief that government or other entities should exist separately from religion and/or religious beliefs
Montesquieu's form of government:
Monarchy, appropriate for middle-sized states and grounded in the ruling class's adherence to law; and it was his praise and analysis of England's constitution to that led to his most far reaching and lasting contribution to political thought the importance of checks and balances created by means of a separation of powers. He believed that England's system, with its separate executive, legislative,and judicial powers that served to limit and control each other, provided the greatest feedom and security for a state.
Cottage Industry:
A cottage industry is an industry—primarily manufacturing—which includes many producers, working from their homes, typically part time. The term originally referred to home workers who were engaged in a task such as sewing, lace-making or household manufacturing. Some industries which are usually operated from large centralized factories were cottage industries before the Industrial Revolution. Business operators would travel around, buying raw materials, delivering them to people who would work on them, and then collecting the finished goods to sell, or typically to ship to another market. One of the factors which allowed the Industrial Revolution to take place in Western Europe was the presence of these business people who had the ability to expand the scale of their operations. Cottage industries were very common in the time when a large proportion of the population was engaged in agriculture, because the farmers (and their families) often had both the time and the desire to earn additional income during the part of the year (winter) when there was little farming work to do.
the Seven Year's War:
The Seven Years' War was a global military conflict between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time affecting North and Central America, Europe, the West African coast, India and the Philippines. The war was driven by the antagonism 敌对between Great Britain (in personal union with Hanover) and the Bourbons (in France and Spain), resulting from overlapping 重叠的interests in their colonial and trade empires, and by the antagonism between the Hohenzollerns (in Prussia) and Habsburgs (Holy Roman Emperors and archdukes 皇太子in Austria), resulting from territorial and hegemonial conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire. The war ended with the peace treaties of Paris (Bourbon France and Spain, Great Britain) and of Hubertusburg (Hohenzollerns, Habsburgs, Saxon elector) in 1763. The war was characterized by sieges 包围and arson 纵火of towns as well as open battles involving extremely heavy losses; overall, some 900,000 to 1,400,000 people died.\
Agricultural Revolution：
Some historians have noted the beginning of agrarian 耕地的changes already in the seventeenth century, especially in the Low Countries. Others have argued that significant changes occurred only in England and even the upward trend in agricultural production was not maintained after 1750.
Eighteenth-century agriculture was characterized by increases in food production that can be attributed to the following factors: more farmland, increased yields per acre, healthier and more abundant livestock, larger farms and an improved climate.
Louis XVI
Louis XVI (23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) ruled as King of France and Navarre （纳瓦拉：中世纪时期位于西班牙东北部和法国西南部的王国）from 1774 until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792. Suspended and arrested as part of the insurrection暴乱 of 10 August during the French Revolution, he was tried by the National Convention, found guilty of high treason叛国罪, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 as "Citoyen Louis Capet". He is the only king of France ever to be executed.

Although Louis XVI was beloved at first, his indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to eventually view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the Ancien Régime and gave him the nickname Oncle Louis ("Uncle Louis"). After the abolition of the monarchy in 1792, the new republican government gave him the surname Capet, a nickname in reference to Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian dynasty – which the revolutionaries interpreted as a family name.
Classes of people in pre-Revolution France
Estates: Nobility, clergy, all the rest
French society was grounded in the inequility of rights or the idea of privilege. Since the Middle Age, the population has been divided into legal catogories known as the three orders or estates.
The First Estate: clergy, 130,000 people, own 10% of land
They exempt from taille, France's chief tax
They were radically divided. The higher clergy, stemming from aristocratic families, share the interests of the nobility while the parish教区 priests are often poor commoners.
The Second Estate: nobility, no more than 350,000 people, own 25 to 30 percent of the land
Under Louis 15 and Luis 16, they had played important roles in society. They hold many of the leading positions in the government, the law courts, the higher church offices and much heavy industry.
The French nobility is also divided. Common to all were tax exemptions, especially from the taille.
The nobility of the sword claimed to be descendants of the original medieval nobility.
Although there were many poor nobles, on the whole the fortunes of the wealthy aristocrats outstripped those of most others in French Society.
Generally, the nobles tended to marry within their own ranks, making the nobility a fairly closed group.
The Third Estate: commoners of the society, majority of the French Society
1)The peasants, 75 to 80 percent of the total population, largest, own 35 to 40 percent of the land
Serfdom no longer exist but peasants still have obligations to local landlords. The nobility also maintained the right to hunt on peasant's land.

2)Another part consist of skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and other wage earners
3) bourgeoisie or middle class, 8% of population, own 20 to 25 percent of land
Include merchants, industrialists, bankers, and also professional people-lawyers, holders of public officers, docters and writers
Napoleon Bonaparte
l Coronation
The Coronation of Napoleon is a painting completed in 1807 by Jacques-Louis David, the official painter of Napoleon. The crowning and the coronation took place at Notre-Dame de Paris, a way for Napoleon to make it clear that he was a son of the Revolution.
History: In 1804, Napoleon restored monarchy to France when he crowned himself emperor. In the painting, Napoleon is shown crowning the empress Joesphine while the pope looks on.
l rise to power
His military education led to his commision in 1785 as a lieutenant.
For the next seven years, Napoleon spent most of his time reading the works of the philosophers and studing the campaign of of great military leaders form the past, including Alexander the Great, Charlemagne, and Frederick the great
Napoleon rose quickly through the military ranks, being promoted to the rank of brigadier general 美国海军或陆军陆战队准将 at the age of 25.
Soon after his marriage with Josephine de Beauharnais, Napoleon was made commander of the French army in Italy. Throughout his Italian campaign, Napoleon won the confidence of his men by his energy, charm and ability to comprehend complex issues quickly and make descisions.
In 1797, N returned to France as a conquering hero and was given command of an army training to invade England. Seeing no future in certain defeat, N did not hesitate to abandon his army and return to Paris, where he participated in the coup d'etat that ultimately led to his virtual dictatorship of France. He was only 30 years old at that time.
l Defeat
The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by combined armies of the Seventh Coalition, an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher. It was the culminating battle of the Waterloo Campaign and Napoleon's last. The defeat at Waterloo put an end to Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French and marked the end of his Hundred Days' return from exile.
American Revolution
Advantages that helped colonist win the Revolutionary War:
1.Colonists' defense od their own land, principles, and strong beliefs.
2.Support from France and Spain
3. Strong leadership
Cause: French and Indian War; Stamp Act; Townshend Acts; Boston Massacre; Boston Tea Party; First Continental Congress; Thomas Paine and Common Sense
Effect: The Declaration of Independence; Treaty of Paris; Articles of Confederation; Constitutional Convention; Federalist Papers; Bill of Rights
The immediate effect was that The United States of American became an independent nation. Another effect however, was that the revolutionary spirit spread to other countries, like France, which soon thereafter had a revolution of its own.
Impact on Europe: First, the impact of the Declaration in creating a new state.Second, the United States was imbued with the philosophy that individuals have rights which are prior to government. Equality and liberty were prized, but equality came first. The effect on those Europeans who opposed the traditional order was overwhelming, as in France in 1789. Thirdly, the form of government established by the Constitution offered a new model.
Declaration of Independence
Its principal author was Thomas Jefferson, who basically restated John Locke's theory of revolution.
1.People have certain "unalienable rights" to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
2.People establish government to protect those rights
3.Government derives power from the people.
4.People have a right and duty to change a government.
French Revolution
Intellectual cause:liberalism
Social cause: the estate system
Political Cause: problems with state finances.failure to make reforms
l Individuals:
Napoleon Bonaparte
A general in the French army and leader of the 1799 coup that overthrew the Directory.
Jacques-Pierre Brissot
A member of the Legislative Assemblyand National Conventionwho held a moderate stance and believed in the idea of a constitutional monarchy.
Charles de Calonne
The controller general of finance appointed by King Louis XVI after Jacques Neckerwas forced out of office in 1781.
Lazare Carnot
A French soldier appointed by the Committee of Public Safetyto help reorganize the failing war effort against Austria and Prussia.
Marquis de Lafayette: A liberal nobleman who led French forces assisting in the American Revolution.
Louis XVI
The French king from 1774 to 1792 who was deposed during the French Revolution and executed in 1793.
l stage
Stage 1: meeting of the Estates General
National Assembly Created: beginning of Stage2
Stage3: National Assembly Rules-Reign of Terror begins
l Final results:
- Feudalism was abolished (August 4, 1789).
- Nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.
- The Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (August 26, 1789) which stated that the individual and collective rights of the nobility, clergy, and commoners were equal.
- The National Assembly was legitimized (October 6, 1789).
- Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property.
- The government introduced a new paper currency.
- Royalist democrats and the National Party were the two new main parties of France.
- Political "clubs" in French politics were on the rise.
- King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were arrested and later were beheaded.
- The Constitution of 1791 was signed by the king (they forced him to) and from then on France would function as a constitutional monarchy.
- Many people were beheade