网友很全的Argument总结.doc

Argument 典型错误总结

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1. 概念差异
2. 与时俱进
3. 因果关系
4. 错误类比
5. 草率推广
6. 非此即彼
7. 调查问题
8. 成本收益
9. 即非充分又非必要
10. 必要而非充分
11. 对比试验
12. 自相矛盾
13. 信息不完整
14. 反证法

1. 概念差异：攻击概念差异的最基本思路是先指出作者所提出的哪两个概念不能划等号，然后再具体说出他们的不同。
如Argument1，运动服销量≠居民对运动的态度。
句式：
a) The author falsely/simply equates A with B
b) The argument depends on the assumption that A is representative of B.
攻击作者概念不清的句式：
a) Even assuming…, it is nevertheless impossible to assess the author’s broader contention that …
攻击词汇定义的句式：有时作者对某一关键词定义不清，或根本没定义，从而导致偷换概念的错误。
a) A threshold problem involves the definition of A; the author fails to define this critical term.
b) If A is define as…, then … is irrelevant to whether…

2. 时间变化：“与时俱进”
The author’s inference that … rests on the poor assumption that during the … (the interim) all conditions upon which their effectiveness depend have remained unchanged.
+推测法和列举法other facets.
It is assumed without justification that background conditions have remained the same at different times (conditions)
3. 因果关系：
句式：
1) The author fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B.
2) Without such evidence, it is equally possible that other factors are instead responsible for…
3) However, the author provides no evidence to support that that is the case, nor does the author establish a causal relationship between A and B.
前后关系混同于因果关系：
1) The author commits a fallacy of “after this, therefore because of this” in assuming that …
攻击相关性混同为因果性错误的句式：
1) While a high correlation is strong evidence of a causal relationship, in itself it is not sufficient.
2) The author has not shown any correlation, let alone a cause-and-effort relationship, between … and …
4. 攻击错误类比
First of all, the argument is based on an incomplete comparison and is wholly unpersuasive by this analogy. The author simply assumes that … but he does not provide any evidence that is indeed comparable. As we know, the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction. 用列举和推测法指出差异. In short, lacking evidence that conditions on the two ** are relevantly similar, the author cannot convince me on the basis of **’s experience that … would be effective in attaining **’s goals.
推测法句式：
(1) Common sense and experience tells us this is not the case, and that a variety of other factors, such as …, also play major roles.
(2) It is possible that …
(3) Such alternatives may include that the fact that…, or …
(4) If so, there may be … due to…, and not due to ….
(5) For example, suppose 反例. If /With respect to 反例.
5. 攻击草率推广
一般在题目中如果出现了诸如all / every / any 这类词汇的时候，都会出现以少推多的差异范围。
1) (部分不能说明整体) Unless it can be shown that … is representative of all …, any conclusion we drawn is completely unwarranted.
2) (部分不能说明整体) Without knowing whether the sample studied was representative of the overall group, it is impossible to confidently apply the studies’ results to that population.
3) (整体规律不一定适用于个人问题) The arguer assumes the characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group.
4) (全国不能用于单个城市) The nationwide study showing … does not necessarily apply to …
6. 非此即彼的错误
反对A即支持B，应该倾向于其他候选人或其他方案。
The author commits a fallacy of “either-or” reasoning. A and B are not necessarily mutually-exclusive alternatives. It is more likely that other proposal might also contribute to the problem. For example… If so, just doing A and B would not solve the problem. In short, without weighing the proposal against alternatives, the article’s claim that … is the “best” means of achieving … is wholly unconvincing.
7. 调查问题：
一看到论据是“survey”，脑中就开始问：1。这项调查是谁完成的，有没有权威性和可信度？2。调查是如何做的？3。数据如何处理？4。调查样本如何？
One must consider how the survey was conducted. (people might just respond with the expected answer.)/
One must consider how broad the survey was. (the survey was limited to a few people)
Were the survey respondents 特殊 people? Was the survey limited to a certain 地域（region）？
1) (样本的覆盖性)The people studied must be representative of the overall population of people who…; otherwise the author cannot draw any firm conclusion about … based on the study’s result.
2) (样本的量) Specifically, the responses must be accurate, and the respondents must be statistically significant in number ... .The smaller the sample, the lesser reliable the results.
3) (比例小) The argument provides no information about what percentage of …;The lower the percentages, the less reliable the results of the surveys.
4) (总数大人均小)Although the number of … is relatively high, the per capita number might be relatively low.
5) (总量大但比例小) Although the number appears to be large, it is possible that 此数字 is only a small percent of the total population
△段落参考：
First, the author provides no assurances that the study’s results on which the argument depends are statistically reliable. For example, suppose 反例. If /With respect to 反例. If so, then the survey results would distort the comparison between …Lacking evidence of a sufficiently representative sample, the author cannot justifiably rely on the study to draw any conclusion whatsoever.
8. 用于表达作者没有考虑成本与收益之比的句式：
1) A(地/公司)will not possibly earn a substantial profit by … (措施). The author provides no information about the costs involved in … +推测或列举哪些额外成本. If so, then the costs of … might prevent A from earning a profit. In short, without more information about supply, demand, and production costs, without weighing revenue against expenses the author’s notion is premature at best.
2) *Profitability is function of both revenue and expense. Perhaps the revenue…. Or, perhaps the expense….Either scenario would provide an alternative explanation for…
9. 非充分又非必要（表达作者没有考虑某些情况/途径的句式）
The author’s recommendation is based on the assumption that no alternative means of doing sth are available. 列举Without weighing the proposal against alternatives, the article’s claim that … is the “best ” means of achieving … is wholly unconvincing.
10. 必要而非充分条件(还需其他条件同时作用才能保证结果的发生)
The author overlooks the possibility that the measure will not in itself suffice to...
The author proceeds as if a condition which by itself is enough to guarantee a certain result is the only condition under which the result would occur.
11. 对比试验(controlled experiment)
攻击前提不足的句式：
The experiment’s results are reliable only if all other factors that might affect … remained constant during the experiment, and if the number of experimental subjects is statistically significant.
攻击缺乏对比的句式：
Another fundamental problem is that the author omits to inform us about the test subjects’ … (initial condition) just prior to the experiment. It is impossible to conclude with any confidence that … without any information about the initial condition before the experiment.
12. 自相矛盾的错误
有时作者提出的某些想想和假设是自相矛盾的，即两个条件或结果不可能同时保证。
先用 the editorial seems to make two irreconcilable claims. One is that ...; the other is that ...来指出作者自相矛盾的两条观点，然后用 the editorial fails to consider that ... 指出作者有哪些情况没有考虑到，最后用Thus，as it stands the argument is self-contradictory, and the author must either modify it by ... or somehow reconcile these two objectives. 来做段落小结。
13. 信息不完整的错误（incomplete information）
a) As it stands this evidence is far too vague to support the author’s conclusion.
b) Absent additional information about the cited studies, these studies lend no credible support to the conclusion that…
14. 反证法：指出原作者提出的论据实际上直接反对他的结论。（使用不是很广泛，要慎用）。例A6：本地没有爵士乐俱乐部的事实正好作为反例说明在这换个地方爵士乐并不流行。同样见例A23。
If the demand were as great as the author claims, it seems A would already have one or more…

注：
1. 在和疾病有关的时候要考虑负作用。
2. 注意特殊词：some，all，every

语言提示：
1． 开头段
肯定原文
The argument is well-presented, but not thoroughly well-reasoned.
列举原文论据
The author advocates that + conclusion. To justify this claim, the author cites (1)…, (2)…, and (3)…
一笔带过地复述原文
The author advocates that + conclusion. To justify this claim + 主要论据. He also cites various other evidences to reason this projection that +小结论.
收笔
Close examination of this supporting evidence, however, reveals the author’s claim is little credible.
2． 论证段句式：
△论证展开模式
The threshold problem with this argument is that …
Another fundamental point worth considering is that …
A third problem involves a fact that/the author’s account of …
Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out another flaw appeared in the argument.
△论证句式
Since the author fails to rule out these and other possibilities for …, I cannot accept any conclusions about …
The mere fact that … hardly suffices to prove…
The author overlooks a myriad of other possible scenario for …
Even if the author can substantiate all of the foregoing assumptions, his assertion that… is still unwarranted …and he unfairly equates … with ….
If so, this fact would seriously weaken the manager’s claim that …
Nor does the mere fact that… leads significant support to …
△形容词：
lacking/reliable/unreasonable/dubious/premature/unjustified/unsubstantiated/questionable/insufficiently/supporting/unrepresentative/unwarranted/crucial/recommended/firm/unfair/false/ confidently/ramshackle/ridiculous
△名词：
proposal/result/ assurance/reliability/ trial/participant/assumption/acquisition/scenario
△动词：
address/account for/ contribute to/ consider/weigh/weaken/due to/draw/aside from/offer/substantiate/
inform/rest on/serve one’s goal/infer/reason/imply/assume/ eliminate/ cause / explain / serve to / account for / be due to / be responsible for / lead to / result in (from) / contribute to/ recommend / suggest / advice / propose / assert / conclude / claim / advocate / reason / assume / predict / project / forecast / expect
△论证段小结句式：
(1) Lacking evidence that … the argument’s conclusion that … is unjustified.
(2) Any of these scenarios, if true, would cast considerable doubt on the argument’s conclusion that …
(3) In short, without better evidence that …, the author cannot rely on it to draw any firm conclusion about…-let alone about…
3． 结尾：
In sum, the author cannot justify his voting recommendation on the basis of the scant evidence provided in the editorial. To better evaluate the reliability of the study upon which the author’s conclusion depends, I would need more information about the size and makeup of the study’s sample, I would also need to know …
4． 其他增强逻辑关系的句式：
△ 让步：
Given that/Granted that …, it is entirely possible that …
Even though/Even assuming/Even so…
Admittedly
△ 递进：besides /moreover/ additionally/furthermore/ in addition/ what is more
△ 假设：the author unfairly / falsely assumes / implies / infers / reasons
△ 转折：Yet, but, however, nonetheless, nevertheless, while, whereas, (al) though, actually, in fact
5． 其他：
△ This is nowhere more ridiculous than……
△ It is presumptuous/ illegitimate/arbitrary/unpersuasive to judge……according to……