外语教学法90分笔记.doc

外语教学法复习笔记
第一章 总论
The Nature of FLTM外语教学法的性质
FLTM is a science which studies the processes and pattern of foreign language teaching, aiming at revealing the nature and laws of foreign language teaching. That is to say, it examines the practices and procedures in foreign language teaching; studies approaches, methods and techniques; and also studies principles and belief that underlie them. In short, FLTM is an inter-disciplinary science and it makes uses of theories of different subjects.
学科性质It includes a lot of disciplines such as linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Therefore, we say that FLTM is an inter-disciplinary science and it makes use of many subjects.
语言研究的历史 we are quite certain that ,according to the records available ,language study is at least more than 2500 years old.
The goal of foreign language teaching—is to help the learner master the target language in the shortest possible time.
What do we mean by mastering the target language? —We mean that the learner is able to have successful communications with others in the target language.
Theories of Linguistics语言学理论
⑴Traditional linguistics: 传统语言学
The traditional linguistics we mean the traditional study of language in ancient Greece. It has a tradition of more than 2000 years. In the fifth century B.C. the ancient Greeks began to make a serious study of language in the realm领域 of philosophy.
古希腊的两个著名论战：one was between the naturalists and the conventionalists on the relations between form and meaning. The naturalists argued that the forms of words reflected directly the nature of objects while the conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words.
The other was between the analogists and anomalists on the regularizes of language.— the analogists thought that language in general was regular and there were rules for people to follow while the anomalists thought that language was basically irregular and that was why there were so many exception and irregularities in the Greek language.
Natural of traditional linguistics传统语言学的特征： Traditional linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students. They gave priority to the written form and used words as their starting point. They often took a prescriptive approach when they discussed rules of language.
⑵American structuralism 美国结构主义It started at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It became popular and influential in the 1930s and 40s through the world. The two forerunners of structuralism— Franz Boas and Edward Sapir. Franz Boas found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structures of those languages. Sapir found that although Indians’ languages had no written forms, they were very systematic and were very efficient in communications within their communities. The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield. He accepted the theories and principles of behaviourism. He characterized language and language acquisition in terms of behaviourist terminology. He thought language was a habit of verbal behaviour which consisted of a series of stimuli and responses. He argued that to acquire a language was to form a habit of verbal behaviour and learning a second language was learning a new habit. He thought that speech was primary and writing was secondary.
⑶Transformational generative linguistics 转换生成语言学
The transformational generative linguistics was first put forward by Noam Chomsky in 1957. He wrote a book Syntactic Structures to spread his theory. His main points---Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device(LAD). This LAD is made up of general principles called universal grammar. Once the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. The child will use and test the principles again and again until his hypothesis agree with the actual grammar of the language. Chomsky has also made the distinction between the linguistic competence and linguistic performance. ⑷linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge that at native speaker of that language processes. Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers. Chomsky believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker so as to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. In order to gain the goal, Chomsky argues that we should use a deductive, hypothesis-testing approach should be used.
⑷Functional Linguistics 功能语言学
It develops from the London School of linguistics and the precursor of it was Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowski’s conclusion is that “the meaning of any single word is to a very hign degree dependent on its context.” And an utterances has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation. It was Malinowski who created the phrase “context of situation”. J.R.Firth, a linguist, approached the context of situation from a different point of view. He accepted Malinowski’s view and he thought the meaning of linguistic items depends on the context of situation. Firth’s main approach to the notion of function in context was by means of concept system. He believes any linguistic item has got two sets of context: the context of the other possible choices in a system and the context where the system itself occurs. People refer to his theory as system-structure theory. Halliday developed Firth’s theory of systemic linguistics and made progress in the study of context. He thought linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The substance is the material of language which can be phonic or grahic. The form is the organization of the substance into meaningful events. The context is the relation of the form to nonlinguistic features of the situations in which the language operates, and the relation of form to linguistic features other than those of the item under attention. He also said that language has formal meaning and contextual meaning. The formal meaning of a linguistic item is its operation in the network of formal relations. The contextual meaning of an item refers to its relation to extra features, i.e. the context. Halliday thought a particular situation type consists of three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationship involved, and the sysbolic or rhetorical channel. He called these three dimensions “field”, “tenor”, and “mode”. He believes that there is a systematic relationship between the context and the text.
Theories of Psychology心理学理论
The first laboratory of experimental psychology was set up at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. It announced the official birth of psychology. It was opened by Willhelm Wundt.第一个心理实验室建立
⑴Gestalt psychology 格式塔心理学
It was founded by a group of German psychologists in the 1920s. Their research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the study of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perception experience. They found that people perceived objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component pars. They used the word Gestalt, which means “ organized shape ” or “whole form” in English, to name their school of psychology They argued that an object was not the sum of the individual parts. For example, an article is not the sum of individual words that make up the article. So people’s mind should be understood in terms of a whole.
⑵ Psychoanalysis精神分析法
It is theory of the mind put forward by Sigmund Freud. Freud found that many of his patients’ mental problems were caused by some disturbing events in their childhood. But the patients could not remember these disturbing events. The part of the mind which is out of the reach of consciousness was called by Freud the subconscious mind, Which was the most important concept in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind and he was the first to study unconscious mind. Freud believed the contents of the unconscious mind consist of buried memories and instinctive wishes and will influence the activities of the conscious mind. The basic approach of Freud was to analyse the irrational behaviour of the patients, including their dreams and slips of the tongue.
⑶ Behaviorism 行为主义
In 1913, the American psychologist John B. Watson published an article “ Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it ”. The article was regarded as a formal introduction to behaviorism. Watson did a lot of experiments with nonhuman animals and animal’s behaviors without any consideration of the animal’s mind. The goal of psychology set out in his articles was to understand the environmental conditions that would cause an animal to behave in a particular way. According to Watson, there was no fundamental difference between human behavior and that of other animals. Watson’s ideas were accepted by many psychologists. The dominant position of behaviorism was maintained until the mid-1960s.
The leader of behaviorism was Skinner. He developed a new kind of apparatus for studying learning in animals and a new way of describing the learning process. Watson’s theory is called classic behaviorism while Skinner’s theory is called neo-behaviorism. The early behaviorists focused the attention on the topic of learning and they tried to characterize learning in terms of stimuli and response. Stimuli are observable events in the world that affect behavior and responses are observable behavioral acts. Skinner argued that learning process could be divided into two kinds: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning a stimulus that did not elicit a response comes to elicit a response. By operant conditioning the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequences of the response. For example, we look up a word in a dictionary because we can find out the meaning of the word in it.
⑷ Cognitive psychology 认知心理学
The term cognition means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behavior. The most important factor that has made cognitive psychology the dominant approach is the development of the computer technology. The brain works in a similar way to process information. The brain receives information through senses, processes it and sends it out as behavior actions.
The American linguist Noam Chomsky greatly influenced cognitive psychology. In his book Syntax Structure (1957) Chomsky argued that language should be viewed as a system of mental rules which are wired into the brain as a result of evolution. Cognitive psychologists maintain that all the relationship among stimuli, responses and consequences are learned and are integrated into the animal’s knowledge.
There are two principal types of cognitive structures—schemas and concepts. Schemas refer to sets of rules that define particular categories of behavior. Concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relation with one another. 认知结构主要分为两种——schemas图式 and concepts概念。图式是指能够解释特定行为种类的多套规则，概念指的是能够描述事件特性与事件之间相互关系的种种规则。 Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two process — assimilation同化 and accommodation调节. 儿童通过assimilation同化 and accommodation调节的过程认知了图式和概念。
Assimilation refers to the process by which new item are added to a concept or schema. Accommodation refers to the process by which the existing concept or schema is changed on the basis of new information.
Theories of Second Language Acquisition二语习得
⑴The habit formation theory 习惯形成说
It comes from the behaviorist psychology and was very popular in the 1950s and 60s. According to behaviorists, learning a second language means the formation of a set of linguistics habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation. According to the habit-formation theory, the old habit—mother tongue of the learner will either facilitate or get in the way of the second language learning. Negative transfer means the learner transfers the ways of expression in the mother tongue to the target language. They will cause errors.
⑵The hypothesis of linguistic universals 语言共性说
It believed that there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all the natural languages in the world. The hypothesis of linguistic universals is born of the study of linguistic universals. Core grammar and peripheral grammar: Chomsky divides the grammar of a natural language into core grammar and peripheral grammar. According to him, human beings are born with a language acquisition device which consists of a set of general principles. The core grammar of a natural language agrees with the inborn set of general principles while the peripheral grammar can not be governed by the language acquisition device. The core grammar agrees with the inborn general principles and is much easier to learn.
⑶The acculturation theory 文化认同说
The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behavior in order to function well in another culture. It involves social and psychological adaptations. The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance play a decisive role in acculturation success. Negative psychological factors that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.
⑷The discourse theory 话语交际说
It was put forward by Hatch in the late 1970s. It was developed from Halliday’s theory of first language acquisition. The theory believes there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition — only through communication discourses.
⑸The monitor theory 自我监测说
It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses: ①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have to ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language. ②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— Ac