语音学第二章整理.doc

上一节课主要讲的语音学，从课本的43---56。
2.11 首先，语言学的定义phonetic is the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds.
语言学的分类：发音语言学（articulatory phonetic）
声学语言学（acoustic ~）和
听觉语言学（auditory ~）
2.12
如果把声音的传递用三个步骤来表示，可以表示为
Speaker A ----------------------Speaker B

Production transmission perception
也就是说，说话人A是声音的制造者，经过传递，才被B接收。所以我们先从说话者角度研究，就是发音语言学，这也是语音学三个分类中 the most development。这部分主要讲的是怎么通过发音器官来发音。
发音器官有：肺(lungs) 气管 咽，口腔，鼻腔。具体位置在课本45 第一段。
既然各器官有发音的功能，就会发出许多不同的音。下面是根据不同划分标准划分音，和我们大一学的语音学有相似之处。
2.122

1 这里的音是说的辅音、

鼻腔音 nasal stop
爆破音 plosive stop
P b t d k g
1， 摩擦音 fricative 8个 见46页
f v s z this think ash regime
2． 塞擦音，affrictes 2个
Children just
3 鼻音 Nasals 3个
4，滑音 glides w j
5，咝音 sibilants s z ship regime
6． 流音 liquids l r
7． 颤音 trills and taps
发音方式
The manner ofarticulation
塞音
Stops
塞音
Stops
连续音
Continuants
除了六个爆破音，其余都是连续音

2 发音位置 place of articulation
双唇音 Bilabial
唇齿音Labiodentals
Dental
齿龈音Alvelar
腭音Palatal
软腭音Velar
声门音Glottal
3． 根据声带闭合分为 voiceless and voiced sounds
4． 根据口腔或鼻腔分为 oral sounds and nasal sounds
5． 根据是否送气分为 unaspirate and aspirate
总结：

Bilabial
Labiodental
Dental
Alvelar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Stop
Vl
P

T

K

vd
B

D

G

Fricatives
Vl

F
This

S
是

H
vd

V
Think
Z
日

Affricates
Vl

Children

vd

Just

Nasals
vd
M

N

ing
Linguids
vd

L r

Glides
vd

j

2． 1 2 4 元音 vowels
分类：
1， 舌位 前元音
中元音
后元音
2， 张口大小 open close close-mid open-mid
3， 唇形 圆唇音（所有的后元音是圆唇音）， 不圆唇音
4， 元音长度 长元音 也叫tense vowels
短元音 lax vowels
2.1．4 这一节主要讲的标音法。
标音法包括宽式标音法（broad transcription）和严式标音法（narrow transcription）

2.2．音位 phonemes
音位和音素需要对比记忆。
1． 音素（phone） 能发出的音都叫音素。他是语音学的基础单位，不能区别单词的意义。比如，两个单词的音标中都含有相同的发音，但是两者意思不同。比如，seed nxileed
2． 音位是音系学的基础单位，可以区别意义。
(Phonology 音系学is the study of the sound patterns in human language.目的，，it aims to discover how speech sounds form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meanings in linguistic communication.)
3． 放在斜线里的是音位，放在框里的是音素。
4． 音素是音位的变体。
Phonemes is abstract and it is not sounds，but a collection of distinctive features .it is realized as a certain phone
Allophone 音位变体
The different phone that can represent a phone name in different phonetic environment are called allophone.

2.2.2 minimal pairs 最小对立对
Phonemes : 1.a pairs of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair.
2. Phonemic distinction can occur in any position within a word.
3. for example till bill will ,t b w is called 音位对立（处于同一环境下，能区别意义）

Minimal pairs : 1。when two different forms are identical in every way except foe one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called ~~
2. for example deed seed are minimal pairs

Assimilation rules 同化规则， 加前缀，impossible，suppression
前缀应为in sub
Sequential constraints 序列规则的
1．B p k g 后不能再加辅音
字母开头不能超过三个辅音，且第一个音位是s ，第二个是p k t之一
第三个是 l r w 之一。
2． 吃，只，s z 师 日，后不能再加s z 师 日
Complementary distribution 互补分布

2.2 sound and patterns
Deletion rules 省略规则 climb sign 位于鼻音后，并且鼻音在末尾时，g 不发音。

2.4 suprasemental features超语段标音
Syllable 什么是开音节，没有音结尾的叫开音节，有音结尾的叫闭音节。最小的音节是一个元音。
1． 特征1 Stress is general defined as syllable prominence
StressSentence stress 名词，形容词，动词，副词，数词，在句中重读

Word stress 重音不是固定的，但是不同德位置可以区别意义。
1． 复合词重音在第一个音节，greenhouse
2． Ing形式 修饰名词
dining-room ， sleeping car 表示用来。。。的
sleeping-room，swimming-fish 名词是动词的执行者
特征2，pitch，音高
特征3。 Intonation and tone 声调和语调 4种基本语调

第三章morphology and lexicon 形态学和词汇学
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and rules by which are formed。
Morphology，
1． 自由语素 like get
2． 加前缀 dislike
Inflection morpheme 曲折语素，不能改变意义used as grammatical markers ，they signify tense and number.
3． 加后缀
4． 曲折或派生词
Derivative morpheme,派生词素
5． 复合词
分为两类
曲折形态学Morphology，
派生形态学Morphology， study the formation of word
3.2 morpheme
1. 1 what is a morpheme
(1) a morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning, it is the most basic element of meaning.
（2）a morpheme can’t be divided without changing or destroying its meaning .
(3)sometimes ,it’s very hard to define a constant meaning to a morpheme
(4)one morphemic shape may represent different morphemes that has different meanings.. for example talks boys ,虽然都是s 结尾，但是意义不同
（5 morpheme conveys two kinds of meanigs grammatical and lexical
~~has allomorpheme 词素变体

The differences between phonemes and morpheme
1 p is the smallest unit that can distinguish meaning , and m is the smallest unit in language that has meaning, m is the basic element of meaning.

2. s single p may have represent a single m but they are not identical in most cases.
Boys boy’s goes the same p but different meaning.
3. phonological structure of a word and morphemic structure of a word do not necessily correspond.

3.2.2 types of morphemes 语素的类型
Free morpheme 自由语素 ，可单独用作词。If a morpheme can constitute word by itself ,it is called free ~~~
Bound morpheme is also called an affix in the sense that it is always added to another morpheme.
Bound ~可以分为
按照位置可分为 前缀，中缀，后缀。
按照是否提供意义可分为曲折词素和派生词素。

区分 root
Stem
Base

3.1 word and word classes
Morphology is the study of words. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which the word are formed. The formation of word is also formed by a set of rules.

The meaning of a word is partly dependent on its meaning.
3.1.1 word
Four characteristics of a word
1. first of all, a word is sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocal equipment.
2. second
3. third
4. lastly
参见74~75页
3.1.2 word classes
According to Quirk(1985：67~68) ，English words can be classified into closed class open class, and two lesser categories and words of unique function.(特殊用途)
3.1.2.1 closed class 封闭性词类，一般不增加新词
(1)prepositions(前置词)
（2）pronouns代词
（3）determiners(限定词)
(4)conjunctions(连词)
（5）modal verbs(情态动词)
(6)primary verbs(基本动词) be ,have, do

3.1.2.2 open class(开放词类)
Open –class words are also termed lexical(词汇学) words or content words.
（1） nouns(名词) 其中人名也是open-class
（2） full verbs a full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is ,does or experience. Full verbs can be further divided into transitive and intransitive vers.
（3） Adjectives(形容词)
（4） Adverbs(副词)
3.1.2.3 lesser categories
（1）numerals(数词): cardinal numerals (基数词)，ordinal numerals(序数词)
（2）interjections(感叹词)
(3)there are also a number of words of unique function, like the negative particle (否定词) not, and the infinitive marker(不定式) to.
3.1.2.4 word and closed-class words
Open-class words are also termed lexical words in the sense that they all carry certain semantic contents, in contrast closed-class words are called grammatical words or function words,since their roles are largely or wholly grammatical.

3.1.2.5 pro-forms 替代形式
3.1.2.6 variable and invariable words(可变的与恒定的)
3.1.2.7 lexical words and grammatically words（词汇的与语法的）
3.3 inflection and word-formation

3.3.1 inflection
复数（-s）
第三人称单数(-s)
进行时（ing）
过去式和过去分词（ed）
比较级（er）
最高级（est）
所有格（‘s）
阴性词（-ess）

Word-formation 词的构成
1． Compounding复合词
Compounding refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes to form a new word. .The new word form is called a compound.
（1） Semantic features 语义~
（2） Orthographic features 正字法~
（3） Phonological features 音位~
（4） Grammatically features 语法~
3.3.2.2 derivation 派生词
Derivation morpheme can change the meaning, they can change the category of the word.
3.3.2.3 conversion 转化
注意零派生88页
（1）n-v elbow~to elbow
(2) v-n to doubt ~doubt
(3)adj/adv-v dry~to dry
(4)adj-n native~native~two natives
3.3.2.4 abbreviation 缩略
（1）clipping 去除首字母或是缩短单词长度
Bicycle-bike
(2)initials and acronyms 首字母
(3)bleeding 两个单词混合到一起
Motel=motor+hotel
3.3.2.5 back formation
This process of word –formation refers to the removal of an affix from an existing word to form a new word. ~television
3.3.2.6 neologism 新词
.3.3.2.7 borrowing 外来词 humour noir 来自法语 黑色幽默