f语义学第六讲-蕴涵与预设(课堂PPT).ppt

语义学第六讲Entailment&Presupposition1蕴 涵ventailment(蕴涵、衍推、推涵）v广义：同义解释、预设v狭义：纯逻辑推理vJohn assasinated Mark.(entailing sentence)vMark is dead.(entailed sentence)vp q2v贵客到了客人到了v下位蕴涵上位v他打了小张的头他打了小张v部分蕴涵整体（同一时间）v他什么戏都爱看他爱看京剧v上位蕴涵下位（同一个人）coreference 互参原则3vp q TT FT/F T/FT FF p q TTFTT/FT?FTruth Value Gap真值缺失蕴涵蕴涵预设预设4vThe king of France is bald.vThere is a king of France.vq(F)p(neither T nor F)dubiouspresupposition failure5强蕴涵强蕴涵与弱蕴涵弱蕴涵v杰克的儿子都是海员杰克的小儿子是海员v杰克的儿子都不是海员杰克的小儿子不是海员vT T vF Fv我是小学教师我是教师v我不是小学教师我是教师/我不是教师vT T vF T/F强蕴涵强蕴涵弱蕴涵弱蕴涵对比焦点对比焦点6逻辑蕴涵与语义蕴涵v逻辑蕴涵的语义解释是纯真值的，前后件的命题可以没有任何意义上的联系。v“如果雪是白的，那么2+2=4。”v这个命题是真的，因为前件(雪是白的)和后件(2+2=4)都为真。v语义蕴涵的内涵比逻辑蕴涵丰富。语义蕴涵的命题之间存在语义内容关系。v“我躺在床上”“床在我的下面”7v语义蕴涵的一个特征：语义蕴涵的一个特征：v一个语句和它推导出来的语义蕴涵之间在意义上是必然的、稳定的关系，即一个语句存在，其语义蕴涵就必然存在。8蕴含在翻译中的应用蕴含在翻译中的应用vShe has been a widow only six months,and it is too soon for her to remarry.v她丈夫去世才不过半年，就要改嫁，未免太快了。9语义预设v语义预设定义 v语义预设研究源自哲学家对自然语言中的照应现象和照应语本质的探讨。Frege 认为,人们通过语句作出断言(assertion)时,总存在明显的预设,即断言中的专用名词必定有所指。一个著名的例子是:vKepler died in misery.Frege(1892):presuppositionStawson(1950)前提、先设前提、先设1011逻辑预设和语义预设v语义预设是语句的预设，而逻辑预设是命题的预设。v并非所有的语句都表达命题，只有具有真假值的语句也就是通常说的一般的陈述句才直接表达命题。二值逻辑v“当今法国国王是秃子”v非真亦非假或无意义的第三值：真值间隙。12语义预设的分类v命题预设v命题与命题之间的预设关系v非命题预设v非陈述句与其预设之间的关系vSee that you return the book you borrowed from the library.vYou borrowed a book from the library.13语义预设的特点v1.1.语义预设的稳定性语义预设的稳定性(stability(stability）14v2.2.语义预设的可变性语义预设的可变性 (changeability)(changeability)v预设随焦点的变化而变化vJohn gave the book to Bill.vJohn gave the book to Bill.vJohn gave the book to Bill.15v3.3.语义预设的可传递性语义预设的可传递性(transmissibility)(transmissibility)vThe one who invented telephone is The one who invented telephone is great(=X)great(=X)vSomeone invented telephone(=Y)Someone invented telephone(=Y)vThere is something called telephone(=Z)There is something called telephone(=Z)vXY&YZ XZ16预设投射vFrege:句子意义具有合成性（compositionality)=整句意义是各组成部分意义的函数。vLangendoen&Savin(1971)认为，预设也具有合成性。vSo=S1+S2+S3SnvP of So=P of S1+P of S2+P of S3 P of Sn17预设与语境v预设存于语境中，受语境制约，也能影响语境，成为语境的组成部分，是话语理据的基础。vThe earthquake didnt cause the destruction of the city.vThe destruction of the city was not caused by the earth.潜在预设潜在预设（pre-supposition)defeasible presuppostion(实际预设实际预设）not defeasible There was an earthquake.18语义预设的局限性v难以在复合句中准确表现va.If John does linguistics,he will regret doing so.vb.John is doing linguistics.vc.John is not doing linguistics.19预设触发语v预设触发语（presupposition triggers)：导致预设的词或短语。v1.有定描述语（definite descriptions)vJohn saw/didnt see the man with two heads.v There exists a man with two heads.v2.叙实谓词（factive verbs)vJohn realized/didnt realize that he was in debt.v John was in debt.20v3.隐含动词（implicative verbs)vJohn forgot/didnt forget to lock the door.vJohn ought to have locked,or intended to lock the door.(regret,happen,avoid,etc)v4.改变状态动词（change of state verbs)vJohn stopped/didnt stop beating his wife.v John had been beating his wife.21v5.反复词语（iteratives)vThe flying saucer came/didnt come again.v The flying saucer came before.v6.判断动词（verbs of judging)vJohn accused/didnt accuse Mary of plagiarism.v(John thinks)plagiarism is bad.22v7.时间从句（Temporal clauses)vBefore Strawson was even born,Frege noticed/didnt notice presupposition.v Strawson was born.v8.分裂句（cleft sentences)vIt was/wasnt Henry that Kissed Rosie.vSomeone kissed Rosie.23v9.隐性分裂句（implicit clefts with stressed constituents)vJohn did/didnt compete in the OLYMPICS.vJohn did compete somewhere.v10.比较和对照句（comparisons and contrasts)vCarol is/isnt a better linguist than Babara.v Babara is a linguist.24v11.非限定性定语从句（non-restrictive attributive clause)vThe strong man,who won the race,is my father.v The strong man won the race.v12.反事实条件句（conterfactual conditionals)25vIf hannibal had only had twelve more elephants,the Romance languages would/would not this day exist.vHannibal didnt have twelve elephants.v13.疑问句（questions)vIs there a professor of linguists at MIT?v Either there is a professor of linguists at MIT or there isnt.26漏洞、塞子、过滤器vKarttunen(1973)从触发语着手研究句子组成部分预设与整句预设之间的投射关系：vMartha regrets drinking Johns home brew.vp:Martha drank Johns home brew.vHoles:允许预设漏到整句中去，成为整句的预设。vPlugs:不让句子组成部分的预设成为整句预设。27v体现命题态度动词（propositional verbs:hope,suspect,believe)v表言说动词（saying:tell,say,announce)v使成为不透明语境（opaque context)vWe all believe that he is the captain.vp:He is the captain.28v但漏洞和塞子不足以解释ifthen,eitheror.vIf John does linguistics,he will regret doing it.vp:John will do linguistics.vDefeasibilityv鉴于此，Karttunen提出filter:在句型if p then q中，子句的预设可被整体继承，除非q预设r,且p 蕴涵r。29预设取消v多数单句的预设具有不可取消性，只有少量单句存在其预设被取消的情况：v张文刚在完成博士论文之前去世了。v动词干预vMary died before she finished the dissertation.vMary cried before she finished the dissertation.30语用预设v语用预设,是指那些对于语境敏感的与说话人(有时包括说话对象)的信念、态度、意图有关的前提(即预设)关系。31语用预设的定义v1.从言语行为角度：有效言语行为的条件，即实施某一言语行为所需满足的条件。v请开门！请求言语行为v请别开门！v预设合适性（appropriateness,felicity)v2.从言语交际功能角度：双方共有知识（背景知识）。v现在是七月，但下雪了。32语用预设的分类v1.事实预设v今天你喝了吗?(高乐高饮料之广告)v事实:你每天都喝高乐高。v2.信念预设v长虹空调中国风。v3.状态预设v有了它你还用担惊受怕吗?(一保险柜广告)33v4.行为预设v一对新婚夫妇发生争吵,妻子哭闹着要跟丈夫分手回娘家去。丈夫说:“好吧,亲爱的,这是你回家的车费。”妻子数了数钱突然问道:“我回来的车费呢?”v5.文化预设v玛莉在用过“伊凡娜”牙膏之前,就没有人向她打过口哨。34v宝钗的灯谜:v“有眼无珠腹内空,荷花出水喜相逢,梧桐叶落分离别,夫妻恩爱不到冬”35v6.双关预设v慈善心肠v乞丐向一位老太太讨饭吃,老太太问道:“你吃不吃隔夜饭v“吃,当然吃!”v“那么,你明天再来吧!”36预设的功能预设的功能v1.经济性v“我儿子最近辞职,在西藏路开了一家小铺子,卖羊毛衫了,不过两个月就赚了不少钱。”v“你知道,我有一个儿子,他最近辞了职,呃,他原来有工作的。你知道,上海有条西藏路,他在西藏开了一家小铺子,卖羊毛衫。自然有羊毛衫他才能卖,不过两个来月,就赚了不少钱,这世界上是真有钱这种东西的,不骗你。”37v2.增强话语的说服力v我去年在胡锦涛家吃饭的时候儿啊v3.语篇组织功能v1 1）衔接功能）衔接功能vFive score years ago,a great American,signed the Emancipation Proclamation.This momentous decree came as a great bacon of light and hope to millions of Negro slaves(Martin Luther King:I hav e a dream)38Halliday：主位推进（thematic progression)39v2)2)连贯功能连贯功能vA:If Mrs Smith continues to be so nagging,she might wake up dead one day.vB:Yeah,he might.v4.4.幽默功能幽默功能vA:我要是发了财就买三套别墅,一套自己v住,一套送人,一套用来喂猪。vB:现在天还没黑呀!vA:嗯?难道白天就不能发财吗?40语用预设的应用v1.新闻标题的预设功能v1)1)在压缩标题长度的同时提供额外信息在压缩标题长度的同时提供额外信息v印度停止军援尼泊尔(扬子晚报,2005年2 月23日)2)2)激活读者的已有知识激活读者的已有知识,与读者发生互动与读者发生互动vDemocrats,once again,are the party of“the plain people”(USA Today,2005年2月14日)41v3)3)激发读者的好奇心与兴趣激发读者的好奇心与兴趣v谁能破解达芬奇密码?(扬子晚报,v2005年4月2日)。v4)4)呼应读者的期望呼应读者的期望,与读者发生共鸣与读者发生共鸣v春晚状元榜同时出炉,赵本山果然望“手”兴叹v(扬子晚报,2005年2月23日)4243