语言学导论-第4章Syntax(课堂PPT).ppt

Sentence Structure:SyntaxInflP（=S）VPNPNPDet N V Det N A boy will find the evidenceInfl1Syntax 句法学句法学oA branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.oSyntax theories:nTransformational syntaxTransformational Generative Grammar(TG)转换生成语法转换生成语法2Transformational Generative Grammar(TG)oNoam.Chomsky(1928-)othe most influential linguist in 20th century,osome important works:n(1957)Syntactic Structure;n(1965)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;n(1981)Lectures on Government and Binding;n(1986)Barriersn(1993)A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;n(1995)The Minimalist Program;n(1998)The Minimalist Inquiryn3 Criteria on good grammar oObservational adequacy 观察充分性oDescriptive adequacy 描述充分性oExplanatory adequacy 解释充分性oThe ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.oTG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description,but also its explanation.oChomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework(Universal Grammar).4Categories 范畴范畴oA group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language,e.g.,nA Sentence:The boy kicked the ball.nA Noun Phrase:strong man,tallest boynA Verb:kick,run,gooSyntactic categories 句法范畴句法范畴 can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.e.g.,The _ smiles.man boy girl5Word-level categoriesoTraditional grammar:8 parts of speechnNounnVerbnAdjectivenAdverbnPronounnPrepositionnConjunctionnInterjection “Oh,Ouch,eh,Hey,”6oMajor lexical categoriesnNoun(N)nVerb(V)nAdjective(A)nPreposition(P)oMinor lexical categoriesnDeterminer(Det)限定词限定词:the,a,this,thosenDegree(Deg)程度词程度词:quite,very,more,sonQualifier(Qual)修饰词修饰词:often,always,seldom,almostnAuxiliary(Aux)助词助词:must,should,can,mightnConjunction(Con):and,but,orWordlevel categories7oCriteria to determine word categoriesnMeaning：the type of meaning that they expressnInflection：the type of affixes that they takenDistribution the type of structures in which they occurWord-level categories8nMeaning：N.:to denote entities and objects e.g.,John,Mary,pen,book V.:to designate action,sensation and states e.g.,run,hate,exist Adj.:to modify property of nouns e.g.,pretty lady Adv.:to denote property of verbs e.g.,Jenny left quietly.Not always reliable:He stands still.love hate be aware of know about9nInflection-affixWords of different categories take different inflections.E.g.,Plural affix“s”N.Past tense“ed”,progressive affix“ing”V.Comparative affix“er”,superlative“est”A.Exception:milk,stand-stood,let-let,more competitive “s”third person singular “ed”Adj.(deviational affix)“er”teacher(deviational affix)10nDistribution-collocationWhat type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.E.g.,N.Det.:the car,a girl V.Aux.:would go,should stay A.Deg.:very cool,too brightEx 711ExerciseoCategoriesnthe boy in the classroomnalways play footballnvery close to the librarynquite near the station12Phrase categoriesoThe syntactic units that are built around a certain word category,e.g.,nNP:girl the pretty girlnVP:dream often dreamnAP:pessimistic very pessimisticnPP:about mainly aboutNP VP AP PP -phrase levelN V A P -word level13oThe structure:a picture on the wall +head+标志语 中心词 补语nHead:the word around which a phrase is formednSpecifier:the words on the left side of the headsnComplement:the words on the right side of the headsPhrase categoriesspecifiercomplement14Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则oThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase:nNP (Det)+N+(PP)e.g.,those people,the fish on the platenVP (Qual)+V+(NP)e.g.,always play games,finish assignmentsnAP (Deg)+A+(PP)e.g.,very handsome,familiar with,very close tonPP (Deg)+P+(NP)e.g.,on the shelf,quite near the stationEx 815Specifier X Complement HeadXPThe XP ruleNote:X stands for N,V,A or P.The XP rule:XP (specifier)X(complement)16ExerciseDraw the structure of the following phrasesnthe boy in the classroomnalways play footballnvery close to the librarynquite near the station17Coordination rule 并列规则oCoordinate structures:the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction.o Four properties:nno limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;na category at any level can be coordinated;nthe categories must be of the same type;nthe category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.oCoordination rule:X X*ConXEx 1018Phrase elements 短语成分oSpecifier oHeadoComplementoModifierSpecifier Head Complement XPX:N,V,A(Adv),P19Specifiers 标志语标志语oFunctions:nSemantically,specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;nSyntactically,they typically mark a phrase boundary.oSpecifiers:ndeterminers as in NP:the tree,this booknqualifiers as in VP:always fail,never surrenderndegree words as in AP:quite good,very sensitive PP:almost in,quite above20Complements 补语补语oComplements can be phrasesoProviding information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the headoAttached to the right of the head Eg.a story about a sentimental girl nervous about the exam in the lake open the door send me an email put it on the wall21oThere can be no complement,one complement,or more than one complement in a phrase,E.g.,a VP:nappear,break.,put oA sentence-like construction may also function as a complement,E.g.,nI believed that she was innocent.nI doubt if she will come.Complementizers 补语化成分:that/if:Complement clause:the clauses introduced by complementizers.Complement phrase(CP)Complements 补语补语Ex 11(1)22Modifiers 修饰语修饰语oSpecify optionally expressible properties of heads:manner and time Modifier Examples N:AP a very careful boy V:AdvP read carefully;carefully read V:PP open with careThe Expanded XP rule:XP (Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)Ex 9(1)23Exerciseothe pretty lady in the roomoread it carefullyoopen the book with care24Sentences(the S rule)oS NP VP SNPVPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidence25 oS NP infl VP InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(the S rule)Head(tense&agreement)26Infl realized by a tense labelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDet N Pst V Det N A boy found the evidenceInfl27Infl realized by an auxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDet N V Det N A boy will find the evidenceInflEx 9(2)Ex 11(2)28Transformations 转换转换 oAuxiliary movement(inversion)oDo insertion nDeep structure&surface structure oWh-movement oMove and constraints on transformations 29Auxiliary movement(inversion)oInversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.CCPSDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveNPoInversion(revised)Move Infl to C.E.g.:Will the train arrive?VP30Auxiliary movement(inversion)CPSCNPInfl Det N VWill the train arriveeInflVPEx 13(a)31Do insertiono Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.CPCSNP Infl VP1)Birds flyCPCPCCSSInfl NP Infl VPNP Infl VP2)Birds do fly3)Do birds e flyE.g.:Birds fly.Do birds fly?32E.g.:Will the train arrive?oThe XP rule the train will arriveoTransformations Will the train arriveDeep structure&surface structure Deep structureSurface structure33The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structureSubcategorization restricts choice of complements34Wh-movementoWh questions：nWhat can you talk about?nWhat languages can you speak?oDeep structures:nYou can talk about what.nYou can speak what languages.35Wh-movementoMove a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.nWhat language can you speak?nWhat can you talk about?To what precise place should the wh phrase be movedoMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Ex 13(b)36Wh-movement(Revised)oBut:Who won the game?CPVP V NPwon the gameSNP eNPWhoCInflPstEx 13(c)37Wh-movement(Revised)oWh Movement can apply to relative clause.E.g.She has finally found the man whom she loves.nRelative clause:1)to modify the N modifier of an NP 2)itself:a CP Ex 1238Move&constraints on transformationsoAll movement rules Move nConstraints:oInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position,but not to a more distant C position.E.g.Geoffrey should know whether the train might be late.oNo element may be removed from a coordinate structure.E.g.The author might write a story or a poem.39