新编简明英语语言学教程.pptx

1Chapter 5：Semantics 语义学 2n nSemantics-the study of language meaning.n n语义学是对语言意义的研究。语义学是对语言意义的研究。n nMeaning is central to the study of communication.n n意义是研究交际的核心内容。意义是研究交际的核心内容。n nWhat is meaning?-Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.3Some views concerning the study of meaning n nNaming theory(Plato)n n命名论命名论 n nThe conceptualist view n n概念论概念论n nContextualism(Bloomfield)n n语境论语境论n nBehaviorism n n行为主义论行为主义论4Naming theory(Plato)命名论命名论n nWords are names or labels for things.n n词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。n nLimitations:1)Applicable to nouns only.2)There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix 3)There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred5The conceptualist view 概念论概念论n nThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to(i.e.between language and the real world);rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.n n语言学形式和所指之间（即语言和现实世界之间）没有直接联系；而在对意义的解释中，形式和所指是通过思维概念彼此联系。6Ogden and Richards:semantic triangle奥格登和理查兹的语义三角奥格登和理查兹的语义三角Symbol/form（符号（符号/形式）形式）word/phrase/sentenceReferent（所指）（所指）object in the world of experienceThought/reference（concept）（思想）（思想/指称）指称）7The Theory of Referencen nWords Meaning:Words name or refer to things-Platonicn nWordsConceptsThings:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/imagesymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word)stands for (object)8airplane9n nThe symbol or a word signifies“things”by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language;and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.n n用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。Ogden and Richards:semantic triangle奥格登和理查兹的语义三角奥格登和理查兹的语义三角10Contextualism(语境论)n nMeaning should be studied in terms of situation,use,context elements closely linked with language behavior.n n意义应当从场景,运用,语境这些与语言行为紧密相联的成分的角度来进行研究.n nTwo types of contexts are recognized:n nSituational context;linguistic situationn n场景语境和语言语境11n nLinguistic context:sometimes known as co-text,is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word,and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.n n语言语境有时也称为互文,它所涉及的是一个词与另一个词共现或搭配构成该词的部分意义的可能性,而且语境也涉及某一特定话语之前和之后的语境部分.12n nFor example,“black”in black hair&black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning;“The president of the United States”can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.n nThe seal could not be found.13Behaviorism(行为主义论)n nBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as“the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.n n在在特特定定情情境境下下,说说话话人人的的话话语语在在听听话话人人身身上引起的反应上引起的反应.n nThe story of Jack and Jill:n n Jill Jack S_r-s_R14Lexical meaning 词汇意义词汇意义n nSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning.They are two related but different aspects of meaning.n n意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的两意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的两个术语个术语.它们是意义的两个相关但不相同它们是意义的两个相关但不相同的方面的方面.15n nSense-is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.n n意义指的是语言形式的内在意义意义指的是语言形式的内在意义.它它是语言形式所有特征的集合是语言形式所有特征的集合,是抽象是抽象的的,而且与语境无关而且与语境无关,是词典编纂者是词典编纂者所感兴趣的方面所感兴趣的方面.16n nReference-what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical worldit deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.n n指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界中所指的事物中所指的事物;它涉及的是语言成分它涉及的是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系和非语言的经验世界之间的关系.17Note:n nLinguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations;on the other hand,there are also occasions,when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense,e.g.the morning star and the evening star,n nVenus 金星金星/启明星启明星:在西边时是在西边时是evening star 在东边时是在东边时是morning star n nrising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.18Major sense relations 主要的意义关系主要的意义关系 n nSynonymy 同义同义n nAntonymy 反义反义n nPolysemy 一词多义一词多义n nHomonymy 同音异义同音异义n nHyponymy 下义关系下义关系19Synonymy 同义现象n nSynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.n n同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近.意意义相近的词称为同义词义相近的词称为同义词 1)Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词方言同义词)-synonyms used in different regional dialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol gasoline 20n nbuy/purchasen nthrifty/economical/stingyn nautumn/falln nflat/apartmentn ntube/underground2)Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词文体同义词)-synonyms differing in style,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;21Synonymy 3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,情感和评价意义不同的同义词情感和评价意义不同的同义词 4)Collocational synonyms(搭配同义词搭配同义词),),e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semantically different synonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,语义不同的同义词语义不同的同义词 22Polysemy 多义现象n nPolysemy-the same one word may have more than one meaning,e.g.“table”may mean:n nA piece of furnituren nAll the people seated at a tablen nThe food that is put on a tablen nA thin flat piece of stone,metal wood,etc.n nOrderly arrangement of facts,figures,etc.23Homonymy 同音异义同音异义n nHomonymy-the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,e.g.different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.n n同音异义是指不同意义的词拥有相同的形同音异义是指不同意义的词拥有相同的形式式,即不同的词在发音或者拼写上一样即不同的词在发音或者拼写上一样,或者两者都一样或者两者都一样.n nHomophone(同音异义词同音异义词)-when two words are identical in sound,e.g.rainreign,night/knight,24n nHomogragh(同形异义词同形异义词)-when two words are identical in spelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),n nComplete homonym(完全同音异义词完全同音异义词)-)-when two words are identical in both sound and spelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,25Note:n nA polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word(the etymology of the word);while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.n n一个多义词是其基本意义（词源）发展的结果，它的各种意义在某种程度上是相互关联的。26Hyponymy 下义关系下义关系n nHyponymy-the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.n n下义关系指的是一个更普遍下义关系指的是一个更普遍,范围更广泛的词范围更广泛的词和一个更具体的词之间的关系和一个更具体的词之间的关系.n nSuperordinate:the word which is more general in meaning.n n意义上更普遍的那个词称为意义上更普遍的那个词称为上坐标词上坐标词.n nHyponyms:the word which is more specific in meaning.n n意义更具体的词称为意义更具体的词称为下义词下义词.27n nCo-hyponyms:hyponyms of the same superordinaten n在同一个上坐标词的下义词称为在同一个上坐标词的下义词称为并列下并列下义词义词.28Hyponymy 下义关系下义关系n nSuperordinate 上坐标词上坐标词:flowern nHyponyms 下义词下义词:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,n nSuperordinate 上坐标词上坐标词:furnituren nHyponyms 下义词下义词:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,29 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .30n nInclusiveness包含关系包含关系n nA is included in/a kind of B.n nCf.:chair and furniture,rose and flowern nSuperordinate/hypernym:the more general termn nHyponym:the more specific termn nCo-hyponyms:members of the same class31Antonymy(反义词反义词)n nGradable antonyms(等级等级/级差反义词级差反义词)-)-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,32Gradable antonymy n ngood-badn nlong-shortn nbig-smalln nCan be modified by adverbs of degree like very.n nCan have comparative forms.n nCan be asked with how.33Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)n nComplementary antonyms(互补反义词互补反义词)-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,n n一对一对互补反义词是以对一互补反义词是以对一方的否定就是对另一方的方的否定就是对另一方的肯定为特征肯定为特征.34Complementary antonymyn nalive:deadn nmale:femalen npresent:absentn ninnocent:guiltyn nodd:evenn npass:failn nboygirln nhit:miss35n nRelational opposites(关系反义词关系反义词)-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items.n n表示两个词之间关系颠倒的成对词表示两个词之间关系颠倒的成对词.n ne.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,36Converse antonymy(关系反义词)n nbuy:selln nlend:borrown ngive:receiven nparent:childn nhusband:wifen nteacher:studentn nabove:belown nbefore:aftern nhost:guestn nemployer:employee37Sense relations between sentences句子之间的意义关系句子之间的意义关系 n n(1)X is synonymous with Y(X与与Y同义同义)n n(2)X is inconsistent with Y(X与与Y不一致不一致)n n(3)X entails Y(X蕴含蕴含Y)n n(4)X presupposes Y(X预设预设Y)n n(5)X is a contradiction(X自我矛盾自我矛盾)n n(6)X is semantically anomalous(X语义反常语义反常)38X is synonymous with Y(X与与Y同义同义)n nX:He was a bachelor all his life.Y:He never got married all his life.n nX:The boy killed the cat.Y:The cat was killed by the boy.n nIf X is true,Y is true;if X is false,Y is false.39X is inconsistent with Y(X(X与与Y Y不一致不一致)n nX:He is single.n nY:He has a wife.n nX:This is my first visit to Beijing.n nY:I have been to Beijing twice.n nIf X is true,Y is false;if X is false,Y is true.40X entails Y(X蕴含于蕴含于Y)n nX:John married a blond heiress.n nY:John married a blond.n nX:Marry has been to Beijing.n nY:Marry has been to China.n nEntailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.n nIf X is true,Y is necessarily true;if X is false,Y may be true or false.41X presupposes Y(X预设预设Y)n nX:His bike needs repairing.n nY:He has a bike.n nPaul has given up smoking.n nPaul once smoked.n nIf X is true,Y must be true;If X is false,Y is still true.42X is a contradiction(X自我矛盾)n n*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.n n*The orphans parents are pretty well-off.43X is semantically anomalous(X语义反常)n n*The man is pregnant.n n*The table has bad intentions.n n*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.44Analysis of meaning 意义分析意义分析n nComponential analysis(成分分析)n nPredication analysis(述谓结构分析)45Componential analysis成分分析成分分析n nComponential analysis-a way to analyze lexical meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.n n成分分析法是由结构语义学家提出的分析词义的方法.这个理论是基于这样一个信念:一个词的意义能被分解成被称为语义特征的意义成分.46n nFor example:n nMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEn nGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE47Animal words48Domestic animals49English motion verbs50More complex onesn nfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)n nx is a parent of y,and x is male.n ntake:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)n nx causes x to have y.n ngive:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)n nx causes x not to have y.51Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n n1)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words,n n首先首先,句子意义并不是它所有成分意义的总句子意义并不是它所有成分意义的总和和.n ne.g“The dog bites the man”is semantically different from“The man bites the dog”though their components are exactly the same.52n nThe cat is chasing the mouse.n nThe mouse is chasing the cat.n nI have read that book.n nThat book I have read.n nThe daughter of Queen Elizabeths son is the son of Queen Elizabeths daughter.53n n2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammatical meaning and semantic meaning,n n其其次次,句句子子的的意意义义包包括括语语法法意意义义和和语语义意义两个方面义意义两个方面.54n ne.g.n n*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.n n*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.n nWhether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制规则选择限制规则)(constraints on what lexical items can go with what other).55Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n nPredication analysis-a way to analyze sentence meaning(British G.Leech 杰弗里杰弗里.利利奇奇).n nPredication-the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s)and predicate.n n述谓结构述谓结构是句子意义的抽象是句子意义的抽象.由由变元变元和和谓词谓词构成构成.56n nAn argument is a logical participant in a predication,largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.n n一个变元就是一个述谓结构的逻辑参与者一个变元就是一个述谓结构的逻辑参与者,在很大程度上等同于一个句子的名词性成在很大程度上等同于一个句子的名词性成分分.n nA predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.n n谓词是对变元所作的陈述,或是陈述一个句子中连接变元之间的逻辑关系.57Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n nAccording to the number of arguments contained in a predication,we may classify the predications into the following types:n nOne-place predication(单 位 述 谓 结 构):smoke,grow,rise,run,58n nTwo-place predication(双位述谓结构):like,love,save,bite,beat,n nThree-place predication(三位述谓结构):give,sent,promise,call,n nNo-place predication(空位述谓结构):It is hot.59Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n nTom smokes.TOM(SMOKE)n nThe tree grows well.TREE(GROW)n nThe kids like apples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLE n nI sent him a letter.I(SEND)HIM LETTER60n nArgument and Predicaten nJohn runs.runs(John)or R(j)n nJohn loves Mary.loves(John,Mary)or L(j,m)n nJohn gave Mary a book.gave(John,Mary,book)or G(j,m,b)61n nOne-place predicate:runn nTwo-place predicate:loven nThree-place predicate:give62Thank you!Thank you!